Waterborne and foodborne zoonotic protozoa, an unknown threat as a biological agent in bioterrorism
Subject Areas : Food Science and TechnologyN. Hajipour 1 , J. Gharekhani 2
1 - Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
2 - Department of Central Veterinary Laboratory Science, Iranian Veterinary Organization, Hamedan, Iran
Keywords: Mazandaran, Elisa, Aflatoxin M1, raw milk,
Abstract :
Some zoonotic protozoa can be easily transmitted through food and water and cause serious illnesses in humans and animals. Because these pathogenic agents have some characteristics of an effective biological agent such as latent period, low infectious doses, high resistance to disinfectants, they can play a role as an unknown biological agent in bioterrorism. Considering the increasing threats of bioterrorism, biological agents and their use by some colonial countries, it is necessary to identify and recognize these unknown agents and ways to prevent them. Based on a systematic study some keywords such as” bioterrorism”, “biologic”, and “protozoa zoonosis”, parasite” and names of some waterborne and foodborne parasites were searched in reliable information databases and then the related topics were studied carefully. The results of this study show that in addition to bacteria, viruses and their toxins, zoonotic protozoa such as Giardia intestinalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Cryptosporidium parvum, and Toxoplasma gondii which can be transmitted through food and water, can act as biologically hazardous agents in bioterrorism. Because these zoonotic protozoa are resistant to some disinfectants, for example, chlorine and low temperatures, so the only way to deal with these biological agents at times of crisis is to boil the water for 10-15 min at 60 ° C as well as to cook completely those food materials with the probability of contamination.
References:
Acha, P. N. , Szyfres, B. (2003). Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals. 3nd Edition, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, pp.256-275.
Alberts B. (2005). Modeling attacks on the food supply. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,102, 9737–9738.
Baig, A. M., Khan, N. A. (2015). Tackling infection owing to brain-eating amoeba. Acta Tropica, 142, 86-88.
Balali-mood, M., Moshiri, M. and Etemad, L. (2013). Medical aspects of bio-terrorism. Toxicon, 69, 131-142. [In Persian]
Bidaki, M., Balalimood, M.(2015). Bioterrorism and Biological Warfare, from Past to the Present: A classic review. Journal of Birjand University of Medical Sciences, 22 182-198. [In Persian]
Chang, S., Fair, G. M. (1941). Viability and Destruction of the Cysts of Endameba histolytica. Journal of American Water Works Association, 33, 1705-1715.
· Rasco, B.A., Bledsoe, G.E.(2009). Bioterrorism and food safety. Microbiologically Safe Foods, 571-600.
Hajipour, N., Esmaeilnejad, B. (2018). Parasitic zoonoses, (Translation). Authors: Dhaliwal, B. S. , Juyal, P. D.1end, Avesta publication, pp.70-90.
Diadoo, C. A. (1999). An assessment for the need of a bioterrorism preparedness plan at hospital xyz in minnesota. University of Wisconsin-Stout.
Dwight, B. D. (2009). Georgi’s parasitology for veterinarians. Saunders Elsevier, St. Louis.
Guidotti, T. L. (2000). Bioterrorism and the public health response. American journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 178-180.
· Gharekhani, J. (2014). Toxoplasma gondii infections in domestic animals in Hamedan, Iran: A sero-epidemiological study. Bulltine UASVM Veterinary Medicine, 71(1), 68-72.
· Gharekhani, J., Gerami-Sadeghian, A., Tavoosidana, G.R., Sohrabei, A. (2015) Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in dogs and domestic equine from western Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 24(2), 255-258.
· Gharekhani, J., Yakhchali, M., Esmaeilnejad, B., Mardani, K., Majidi, G., Sohrabi, A., Berahmat, R., Alaei, M. (2018) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in southwest of Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 73(4), 305-310.
· Hajian-Bidar, H., Heidari, H., Bahari, A. A., Gharekhani, J. (2014).Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic goats in western Iran. International Journal of Advanced Research, 2(8), 639-643.
Hayes, E. B., Matte, T. D., O'brien, T. R., Mckinley, T. W., Logsdon, G. S., Rose, J. B., Ungar, B. L., Word, D. M., Wilson, M. A. and Long, E. G. (1989). Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply. New England Journal of Medicine, 320, 1372-1376.
· Heidari, H., Gharekhani, J., Tavoosidana, G. H. R. (2013). Role of toxoplasmosis in abortion of ewes in western Iran: a serological study. Scientia Parasitologica, 14(2), 99-103.
Hennessy, T. W., Hedberg, C. W., Slutsker, L., White, K. E., Besser-wiek, J. M., Moen, M. E., Feldman, J., Coleman, W. W., Edmonson, L. M. and Macdonald, K. L. (1996). A national outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis infections from ice cream. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 1281-1286.
Hibler, C. P. (1987). Inactivation of Giardia cysts with chlorine at 0.50 C to 5.00 C, American Water Works Association.
Hohlfeld, P., Daffos, F., Thulliez, P. A., Aufrant, C., Couvreur, J., Macaleese, J., Descombey, D. and Forestier, F. (1989). Fetal toxoplasmosis: outcome of pregnancy and infant follow-up after in utero treatment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 115, 765-769.
Hugh-jones, M. E., Hubbert, W. T. and Hagstad, H. V. (2008). Zoonoses: recognition, control, and prevention, John Wiley & Sons.
Hvarchanova, N. , Georgieva, M. (2015). Biological toxins and Bioterrorism. Scripta Scientifica Pharmaceutica, 2, 250-265.
Jarroll, E. L., Bingham, A. K. and Meyer, E. A. (1981). Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cyst viability. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 41, 483-487.
Jernigan, D. B., Raghunathan, P. L., Bell, B. P., Brechner, R., Bresnitz, E. A., Butler, J. C., Cetron, M., Cohen, M., Doyle, T. and Fischer, M. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8, 1019.
John, D. T. , Markell, P. W. (2006). Voge's medical parasitology. Athari A.(Persian translator), 9.
John, D. T. , Petri, W. A. (2013). Markell and Voge's Medical Parasitology-E-Book, Elsevier Health Sciences.
Karamy, A. (2002). Investigation and analysis of recent biotourism of black wounds. Journal of Military Medicine, 4, 23-30. [In Persian]
Kirk, M. D., Pires, S. M., Black, R. E., Caipo, M., Crump, J. A., Devleesschauwer, B., Dopfer, D., Fazil, A., Fischer-walker, C. L. and Hald, T.(2015). World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 22 foodborne bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases, 2010: a data synthesis. PLOS Medicine, 12, e1001921.
Levine, N. D. (1985). Veterinary Protozoology, Iowa State University Press Ames, pp.245-260.
Lujan, H. D. , Svard, S. (2011). Giardia: A model organism, Springer Science & Business Media.
Markell, E. K. , Voge, M. (1965). Medical Parasitology. Academic Medicine, 40, 719.
Marquardt, W. C., Demaree, R. S. and Grieve, R. B. (2000). Parasitology and Vector Biology. Academic press San Diego, California, pp.347-358.
Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Midzi, N., Muchaneta-Kubara, C., Simbini, T. and Mduluza, T. (2009). Impact of solar radiation in disinfecting drinking water contaminated with Giardia duodenalis and Entamoeba histolytica/dispar at a point-of-use water treatment. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 106, 847-852.
Neva, F. A. , Brown, H. W. (1994). Basic Clinical Parasitology, Appleton & Lange, pp.300-330.
Pakandl, M. (1994). The prevalence of intestinal protozoa in wild and domestic pigs. Veterinarni Medicina, 39, 377-380.
Paterson, R. R. M. (2006). Fungi and fungal toxins as weapons. mycological research, 110, 1003-1010.
Phills, J. A., Harrold, A. J., Whiteman, G. V. and Perelmutter, L. (1972). Pulmonary infiltrates, asthma and eosinophilia due to Ascaris suum infestation in man. New England Journal of Medicine, 286, 965-970.
Rose, J. B. , Slifko, T. R. (1999). Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection, 62, 1059-1070.
Rotz, L. D., Khan, A. S., Lillibridge, S. R., Ostroff, S. M. and Hughes, J. M. (2002). Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents. Emerging infectious diseases, 8, 225.
Ryan, C. A., Nickels, M. K., Hargrett-bean, N. T., Potter, M. E., Endo, T., Mayer, L., Langkop, C. W., Gibson, C., Mcdonald, R. C. and Kenney, R. T. (1987). Massive outbreak of antimicrobial-resistant salmonellosis traced to pasteurized milk. Jama, 258, 3269-3274.
Ryan, J. (2016). Biosecurity and bioterrorism: containing and preventing biological threats, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Singh, B. B., Sharma, R., Sharma, J. K., Banga, H. S., Kumar, H., Aulakh, R. S. and Gill, J. P. S. (2008). Prevalence of Giardia intestinalis infection in cattle. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 22, 91-92.
Tavakkoly, H. R., Sarraf Poor, R. and Samady, M. (2005). Water, Food and Bioterrorism. Journal of Military Medicine, 7, 75-82. [In Persian]
Tavassoli, M. (2006). Veterinary Protozoology, Urmia, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research.[In Persian]
Tavassoli, M., Sodagar-Skandarabadi, M., Soltanalinejad, F.(2007). A survey on cryptosporidial infection in horse in Urmia area, northwestern Iran. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, 8, 86-90.
Tavasoli, M., Ghorhbanzadegan, M., Esmailnejad, B., Mardani, K., Hosseinzadeh, S.(2012). Identification of Toxoplasma gondii strain in human and mouse in Urmia by PCR-RFLP. Veterinary Researches Biological Products, 25, 29-34. [In Persian]
Tavassoli, M., Ghorbanzadehghan, M., Esmaeilnejad, B.(2013b). Foll Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats blood samples by PCR-RFLP in Urmia. In: Veterinary research forum,4, 43-47.
Tavassoli, M., Esmaeilnejad, B., Malekifard, F., Soleimanzadeh, A., Dilmaghani, M. (2013a). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in Sheep and Goat Milk in Northwest of Iran by PCR-RFLP. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology 6, 1-4.
Thavaselvam, D. , Vijayaraghavan, R. (2010). Biological warfare agents. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 2, 179.
Thompson, R. A. (2004). The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis. Veterinary parasitology, 126, 15-35.
Venkatesh, S. , Memish, Z. A. (2003). Bioterrorism—a new challenge for public health. International Journal Of Antimicrobial Agents, 21, 200-206.
Von Gunten, U.(2003). Ozonation of drinking water: Part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide or chlorine. Water Research, 37, 1469-1487.
WHO (1979). Parasitic zoonoses. Report of a WHO Expert Committee with the participation of FAO, World Health Organization.
Xiao, L. (1994). Giardia infection in farm animals. Parasitology Today, 10, 436-438.
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Acha, P. N. , Szyfres, B. (2003). Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals. 3nd Edition, Pan American Health Organization, Washington, pp.256-275.
Alberts B. (2005). Modeling attacks on the food supply. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences,102, 9737–9738.
Baig, A. M., Khan, N. A. (2015). Tackling infection owing to brain-eating amoeba. Acta Tropica, 142, 86-88.
Balali-mood, M., Moshiri, M. and Etemad, L. (2013). Medical aspects of bio-terrorism. Toxicon, 69, 131-142. [In Persian]
Bidaki, M., Balalimood, M.(2015). Bioterrorism and Biological Warfare, from Past to the Present: A classic review. Journal of Birjand University of Medical Sciences, 22 182-198. [In Persian]
Chang, S., Fair, G. M. (1941). Viability and Destruction of the Cysts of Endameba histolytica. Journal of American Water Works Association, 33, 1705-1715.
· Rasco, B.A., Bledsoe, G.E.(2009). Bioterrorism and food safety. Microbiologically Safe Foods, 571-600.
Hajipour, N., Esmaeilnejad, B. (2018). Parasitic zoonoses, (Translation). Authors: Dhaliwal, B. S. , Juyal, P. D.1end, Avesta publication, pp.70-90.
Diadoo, C. A. (1999). An assessment for the need of a bioterrorism preparedness plan at hospital xyz in minnesota. University of Wisconsin-Stout.
Dwight, B. D. (2009). Georgi’s parasitology for veterinarians. Saunders Elsevier, St. Louis.
Guidotti, T. L. (2000). Bioterrorism and the public health response. American journal of Preventive Medicine, 18, 178-180.
· Gharekhani, J. (2014). Toxoplasma gondii infections in domestic animals in Hamedan, Iran: A sero-epidemiological study. Bulltine UASVM Veterinary Medicine, 71(1), 68-72.
· Gharekhani, J., Gerami-Sadeghian, A., Tavoosidana, G.R., Sohrabei, A. (2015) Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii infection in dogs and domestic equine from western Iran. Comparative Clinical Pathology, 24(2), 255-258.
· Gharekhani, J., Yakhchali, M., Esmaeilnejad, B., Mardani, K., Majidi, G., Sohrabi, A., Berahmat, R., Alaei, M. (2018) Seroprevalence and risk factors of Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in southwest of Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 73(4), 305-310.
· Hajian-Bidar, H., Heidari, H., Bahari, A. A., Gharekhani, J. (2014).Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic goats in western Iran. International Journal of Advanced Research, 2(8), 639-643.
Hayes, E. B., Matte, T. D., O'brien, T. R., Mckinley, T. W., Logsdon, G. S., Rose, J. B., Ungar, B. L., Word, D. M., Wilson, M. A. and Long, E. G. (1989). Large community outbreak of cryptosporidiosis due to contamination of a filtered public water supply. New England Journal of Medicine, 320, 1372-1376.
· Heidari, H., Gharekhani, J., Tavoosidana, G. H. R. (2013). Role of toxoplasmosis in abortion of ewes in western Iran: a serological study. Scientia Parasitologica, 14(2), 99-103.
Hennessy, T. W., Hedberg, C. W., Slutsker, L., White, K. E., Besser-wiek, J. M., Moen, M. E., Feldman, J., Coleman, W. W., Edmonson, L. M. and Macdonald, K. L. (1996). A national outbreak of Salmonella enteritidis infections from ice cream. New England Journal of Medicine, 334, 1281-1286.
Hibler, C. P. (1987). Inactivation of Giardia cysts with chlorine at 0.50 C to 5.00 C, American Water Works Association.
Hohlfeld, P., Daffos, F., Thulliez, P. A., Aufrant, C., Couvreur, J., Macaleese, J., Descombey, D. and Forestier, F. (1989). Fetal toxoplasmosis: outcome of pregnancy and infant follow-up after in utero treatment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 115, 765-769.
Hugh-jones, M. E., Hubbert, W. T. and Hagstad, H. V. (2008). Zoonoses: recognition, control, and prevention, John Wiley & Sons.
Hvarchanova, N. , Georgieva, M. (2015). Biological toxins and Bioterrorism. Scripta Scientifica Pharmaceutica, 2, 250-265.
Jarroll, E. L., Bingham, A. K. and Meyer, E. A. (1981). Effect of chlorine on Giardia lamblia cyst viability. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 41, 483-487.
Jernigan, D. B., Raghunathan, P. L., Bell, B. P., Brechner, R., Bresnitz, E. A., Butler, J. C., Cetron, M., Cohen, M., Doyle, T. and Fischer, M. (2002). Investigation of bioterrorism-related anthrax, United States, 2001: epidemiologic findings. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 8, 1019.
John, D. T. , Markell, P. W. (2006). Voge's medical parasitology. Athari A.(Persian translator), 9.
John, D. T. , Petri, W. A. (2013). Markell and Voge's Medical Parasitology-E-Book, Elsevier Health Sciences.
Karamy, A. (2002). Investigation and analysis of recent biotourism of black wounds. Journal of Military Medicine, 4, 23-30. [In Persian]
Kirk, M. D., Pires, S. M., Black, R. E., Caipo, M., Crump, J. A., Devleesschauwer, B., Dopfer, D., Fazil, A., Fischer-walker, C. L. and Hald, T.(2015). World Health Organization estimates of the global and regional disease burden of 22 foodborne bacterial, protozoal, and viral diseases, 2010: a data synthesis. PLOS Medicine, 12, e1001921.
Levine, N. D. (1985). Veterinary Protozoology, Iowa State University Press Ames, pp.245-260.
Lujan, H. D. , Svard, S. (2011). Giardia: A model organism, Springer Science & Business Media.
Markell, E. K. , Voge, M. (1965). Medical Parasitology. Academic Medicine, 40, 719.
Marquardt, W. C., Demaree, R. S. and Grieve, R. B. (2000). Parasitology and Vector Biology. Academic press San Diego, California, pp.347-358.
Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Midzi, N., Muchaneta-Kubara, C., Simbini, T. and Mduluza, T. (2009). Impact of solar radiation in disinfecting drinking water contaminated with Giardia duodenalis and Entamoeba histolytica/dispar at a point-of-use water treatment. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 106, 847-852.
Neva, F. A. , Brown, H. W. (1994). Basic Clinical Parasitology, Appleton & Lange, pp.300-330.
Pakandl, M. (1994). The prevalence of intestinal protozoa in wild and domestic pigs. Veterinarni Medicina, 39, 377-380.
Paterson, R. R. M. (2006). Fungi and fungal toxins as weapons. mycological research, 110, 1003-1010.
Phills, J. A., Harrold, A. J., Whiteman, G. V. and Perelmutter, L. (1972). Pulmonary infiltrates, asthma and eosinophilia due to Ascaris suum infestation in man. New England Journal of Medicine, 286, 965-970.
Rose, J. B. , Slifko, T. R. (1999). Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and Cyclospora and their impact on foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection, 62, 1059-1070.
Rotz, L. D., Khan, A. S., Lillibridge, S. R., Ostroff, S. M. and Hughes, J. M. (2002). Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents. Emerging infectious diseases, 8, 225.
Ryan, C. A., Nickels, M. K., Hargrett-bean, N. T., Potter, M. E., Endo, T., Mayer, L., Langkop, C. W., Gibson, C., Mcdonald, R. C. and Kenney, R. T. (1987). Massive outbreak of antimicrobial-resistant salmonellosis traced to pasteurized milk. Jama, 258, 3269-3274.
Ryan, J. (2016). Biosecurity and bioterrorism: containing and preventing biological threats, Butterworth-Heinemann.
Singh, B. B., Sharma, R., Sharma, J. K., Banga, H. S., Kumar, H., Aulakh, R. S. and Gill, J. P. S. (2008). Prevalence of Giardia intestinalis infection in cattle. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology, 22, 91-92.
Tavakkoly, H. R., Sarraf Poor, R. and Samady, M. (2005). Water, Food and Bioterrorism. Journal of Military Medicine, 7, 75-82. [In Persian]
Tavassoli, M. (2006). Veterinary Protozoology, Urmia, Academic Center for Education, Culture and Research.[In Persian]
Tavassoli, M., Sodagar-Skandarabadi, M., Soltanalinejad, F.(2007). A survey on cryptosporidial infection in horse in Urmia area, northwestern Iran. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, 8, 86-90.
Tavasoli, M., Ghorhbanzadegan, M., Esmailnejad, B., Mardani, K., Hosseinzadeh, S.(2012). Identification of Toxoplasma gondii strain in human and mouse in Urmia by PCR-RFLP. Veterinary Researches Biological Products, 25, 29-34. [In Persian]
Tavassoli, M., Ghorbanzadehghan, M., Esmaeilnejad, B.(2013b). Foll Detection of Toxoplasma gondii in sheep and goats blood samples by PCR-RFLP in Urmia. In: Veterinary research forum,4, 43-47.
Tavassoli, M., Esmaeilnejad, B., Malekifard, F., Soleimanzadeh, A., Dilmaghani, M. (2013a). Detection of Toxoplasma gondii DNA in Sheep and Goat Milk in Northwest of Iran by PCR-RFLP. Jundishapur Journal of Microbiology 6, 1-4.
Thavaselvam, D. , Vijayaraghavan, R. (2010). Biological warfare agents. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences, 2, 179.
Thompson, R. A. (2004). The zoonotic significance and molecular epidemiology of Giardia and giardiasis. Veterinary parasitology, 126, 15-35.
Venkatesh, S. , Memish, Z. A. (2003). Bioterrorism—a new challenge for public health. International Journal Of Antimicrobial Agents, 21, 200-206.
Von Gunten, U.(2003). Ozonation of drinking water: Part II. Disinfection and by-product formation in presence of bromide, iodide or chlorine. Water Research, 37, 1469-1487.
WHO (1979). Parasitic zoonoses. Report of a WHO Expert Committee with the participation of FAO, World Health Organization.
Xiao, L. (1994). Giardia infection in farm animals. Parasitology Today, 10, 436-438.
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