Enhancement of EFL Students’ English and Persian Argumentative Performance: Gender, Topic, and Age in Focus
Subject Areas :
Golsa Faghihi
1
(Ph. D. Candidate in TEFL, Department of English, Maybod Branch, Islamic Azad University, Maybod, Iran)
Farid Ghaemi
2
(Department of ELT and English Translation, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran)
Mohammad Amini Farsani
3
(Department of Foreign Languages, Iran University of Science & Technology, Tehran, Iran)
Keywords: Argumentative writing , The Modified Toulmin model , IELTS Writing Argumentative Instruction , Gender Differences, Age Differences,
Abstract :
The studies on L2 argumentative writing have surveyed different dimensions of learners’ argumentative behavior and performance. However, less attention has been given to the strategies and techniques enhancing students’ argumentative repertoire. As such, the current study, taking a pedagogy-based perspective, examined the argumentative writing behavior of 30 Iranian IELTS candidates before and after the instruction in both English and Persian languages. The sample questions were of the previous IELTS Writing part 2 essays from a real test by Cambridge University Press, chosen by 3 IELTS instructors in the Institute to meet the research objectives. To this end, 180 IELTS Task 2 argumentative essays were analyzed by 30 volunteers, each having 6 essays, at least 250 words, (Persian and English). As for the students’ English and Persian argumentative writing performance, the results indicated that there were significant differences between the EFL learners’ overall means on English argumentative tests. Furthermore, the candidates chiefly applied ‘data’ and ‘claim’ most frequently in both languages with secondary elements of argument (i.e., counterargument claim, counterargument data, rebuttal claim, and rebuttal data) as the least produced elements detected in the essays. The results demonstrate that a sound pedagogy in argumentation can both influence the use of argumentation elements in both English and Persian written texts. The pedagogical implications for writing instruction and argumentative writing are discussed.
Abdollahzadeh, E., Amini Farsani, M., and Beikmohammadi, M. (2017). Argumentative writing behaviour of graduate EFL learners. Argumentation, 31(4), 641–661.
Abu-Bader, S. H. (2021) Using statistical methods in social science research: With a complete SPSS guide. Oxford University Press, USA.
Applebee, A., Langer, J. A., Jenkins, L.B., Mullis, I.V.S., & Foertsch, M. A. (1990). Learning to write in our nation's schools: Instruction and achievement in 1988 at grades 4,8, and 12. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Andriessen, J., Baker, M. J., & Suthers, D. (2003). Argumentation, computer support, and the educational context of confronting cognitions. In J. Andriessen, M. Baker, & D. Suthers (Eds.), Arguing to learn: Confronting cognitions in computersupported collaborative learning environments (pp. 1–25). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
Aristotle. (1991). On rhetoric: A theory of civic discourse. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Arndt, V. (1987). Six writers in search of texts: A protocol-based study of L1 and L2 writing. ELT journal 41(4), 257-267.
Baker, M. J. (2009). Argumentative interactions and the social construction of knowledge. In N. Muller Mirza & A.-N. Perret-Clermont (Eds.), Argumentation and education: Theoretical foundations and practices (pp. 127–144). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Baron, J. (1988). Thinking and deciding. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Belcher, D., & Hirvela, A. (2001). Special issue on voice. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 1–2.
Bijami, M., Kashef, S. H., & Khaksari, M. (2013). Gender differences and writing performance: A brief review. International Journal of Education and Literacy Studies, 1(2), 8-11.
Braund, M., Scholtz, Z., Sadeck, M, & Koopman, R. (2013). First steps in teaching argumentation: A South African study. International Journal of Educational Development, 33, 175–184
Britt, M. A., Kurby, C. A., Dandotkar, S., & Wolfe, C. R. (2008). I agreed with what? Memory for simple argument claims. Discourse Processes, 45, 52-84.
Britt, M. A., & Larson, A. A. (2003). Constructing representations of arguments. Journal of Memory and Language, 48, 794-810.
Camarata, S., & Woodcock, R. (2006). Sex differences in processing speed: Developmental effects in males and females. Intelligence, 34(3), 231-252.
Clark, R., & Ivanic, R. (1997). The politics of writing. London: Routledge.
Coaley, K. (2010). An Introduction to Psychological Assessment and Psychometrics.
Connor, U. (1987). Argumentative patterns in student essays: cross cultural differences. In U. Connor, & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 57-71). Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.
Connor, U. (2001). Contrastive rhetoric: New directions. paper presented at the second international conference on contrastive rhetoric: Linguistics, culture, and teaching. The American University in Cairo.
Connor, U., & Kaplan, R. B. (Eds.). (1987). Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text. Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.
Edelsky, C. (1982). Writing in A Bilingual Program: The Relation of L1 and L2 Texts. TESOL Quarterly, 16 (2), 211-228.
van Eemeren, F. H., Grootendorst, R., & Snoeck Henkemans, A. F. (2002). Argumentation: Analysis, evaluation, presentation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ennis, R. H. (1995). Critical thinking. New York: Prentice Hall.
Fahnestock, J., & Secor, M. (1988). The stases in scientific and literary argument . Written Communication, 5, 427-443.
Fahnestock, J., & Secor, M. (2003). A rhetoric of argument: Brief edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Felton, M. (2004). The development of discourse strategy in adolescent argumentation. Cognitive Development, 19, 39–58.
Ferretti, R. P., MacArthur, C. A., & Dowdy, N. S. (2000). The effects of an elaborated goal on the persuasive writing of students with learning disabilities and their normally achieving peers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 694–702.
Field, A. (2018). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS, Statistics for Statistics. (5th ed.). London: SAGE Publications.
Huang, Y., & Jun Zhang, L. (2020). Does a process-genre approach help improve students’ argumentative writing in English as a foreign language? Findings from an intervention study. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 36(4), 339-364.
Gibb, S. J., Fergusson, D. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008). Gender differences in educational achievement to age 25. Australian Journal of Education,52(1), 63-80.
Goldstein, M., Crowell, A., & Kuhn, D. (2009). What constitutes skilled argumentation and how does it develop? Informal Logic, 29(4), 379–395.
Govier, T. (2014). A practical study of argument (7th edition). Boston: Wadsworth & Cengage Learning.
Grabe,W., & Kaplan, R. B. (1989). Writing in a second language, contrastive rhetoric. In D. M. Johnson, & D. H. Roen, Duane (Eds.), Richness in writing (pp. 263-283). London: Longman.
Grabe, W., & Kaplan, R. B. (1996). Theory and practice of writing. London: Addison Wesley.
Graff, G. (2003). Clueless in academe: How schooling obscures the life of the mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Graff, G., & Birkenstein, C. (2010). They say, I say. The moves that matter in Academic Writing. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.
Gray, C. D., & Kinnear, P. R. (2012). IBM SPSS statistics 19 made simple. Psychology Press.
Hand, M. & Levinson, R. (2012). Discussing controversial issues in the classroom. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 44(6), 614-629.
Hillocks, G., Jr. (2011). Teaching argument writing: Supporting claims with relevant evidence and clear reasoning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Hirose, K. 2003. Comparing L1 and L2 organizational patterns in the argumentative writing of Japanese EFL students. Journal of Second Language Writing 12, 181–209.
Hoey, M. (1983). On the surface of discourse. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.
Horowitz, D. M. (1986). Essay examinations prompts and the teaching of academic writing. English for Specific Purposes, 5, 107-120.
Hyland, K. (2011). Learning to write: Issues in theory, research and pedagogy. Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language, 31, 17-35.
Ivanicˇ, R. (1998). Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Johnson, D.W., & Johnson, R.T. (2009). Energizing learning: The instructional power of conflict. Educational Researcher, 38(1), 37–51.
Kamari, E., Gorjian, B., & Pazhakh, A. (2012). Examining the effects of gender on second language writing proficiency of Iranian EFL students: Descriptive vs. opinion one-paragraph essay. Advances in Asian Social Sciences (AASS), 3(4).
Kaplan, R. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning, 16, 1-21.
Kaplan, R. (1987). Cultural thought patterns revisited. In U. Connor, & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text (pp. 9-21). Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley.
Kaplan, R. (2001). Telepress conference. The second international conference on contrastive rhetoric: Linguistics, culture, and teaching. March: The American University in Cairo. 23-25.
Keck, C. (2006). The use of paraphrase in summary writing: A comparison of L1 and L2 writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15, 261–278.
Keck, C. (2014). Copying, paraphrasing, and academic writing development: A re-examination of L1 and L2 summarization practices. Journal of Second Language Writing, 25, 4–22.
Kobayashi, H., and C. Rinnert. 2008. Task response and text construction across L1 and L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 17, 7–29.
Kubota, R. (2003). New approaches to gender, class, and race in second language writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12(1), 31-47.
Kuhn, D. 2008. Education for thinking. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Kuhn, D., & Udell, W. (2003). The development of argument skills. Child Development, 74, 1245–1260.
Larson, A. A., Britt, M. A., & Kurby, C. A. (2009). Improving students’ evaluation of informal arguments. Journal of Experimental Education, 77, 339-365.
Leitao, S. (2003). Evaluating and selecting counterarguments. Written Communication, 20, 269–306.
Lunsford, K.J. 2002. Contextualizing Toulmin’s model in the writing classroom: A case study. Written Communication, 19(1), 109–174.
Manchón, R. M. (2011). Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language. Learning-to-Write and Writing-to-Learn in an Additional Language, 1-276.
Marks, G.N. (2008). Accounting for the gender gaps in student performance in reading and mathematics: evidence from 31 countries. Oxford Review of Education, 34(1), 89-109.
McNeill, K. L., & Knight, A. M. (2013). Teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge of scientific argumentation: The impact of professional development on K–12 teachers. Science Education, 97, 936–972.
Means, M.L., and J.F. Voss. 1996. Who reasons well? Two studies of informal reasoning among children of different grade, ability, and knowledge levels. Cognition and Instruction, 14, 139–178.
Meral, E., Kayaalp, F., & Namli, Z. (2022). The Role of Argumentative Writing in Teaching Controversial Issues: A Mixed Methods Research. International Journal of Contemporary Educational Research, 9 (1), 143-163.
Mitchell, S., Prior, P., Bilbro, R., Peake, K., See, B. H., & Andrews, R. (2008). A reflexive approach to interview data in an investigation of argument. International Journal of Research & Method in Education, 31(3), 229–241.
Mu, C. (2005). A taxonomy of ESL writing strategies. Proceedings Redesigning Pedagogy: Research, Policy, Practice, 1-10, Singapore.
Muto-Humphrey, K. (2005). Gender balance in EFL textbooks: Graded readers. Retrieved March 14, 2012, textbooks: Graded readers. Retrieved March 14, 2012, from www. library. nakanishi.ac.jp/kiyou/gaidai
Nganga, L., Roberts, A., Kambutu, J. & James, J. (2020). Examining pre-service teachers’ preparedness and perceptions about teaching controversial issues in social studies. The Journal of Social Studies Research, 44(1), 77-90.
Nurhayati, M. (2018). Wisdom values in traditional phrases the Mamuju tribe in shaping this study entitled local the character of society: antrpolinguistics approach. Supplement. No 1. pp. 307-320. Astra Salvensis. Romania.
Nussbaum, E.M., and C.M. Kardash. 2005. The effects of goal instructions and texts on the generation of counterarguments during writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 157–169.
O’Keefe, D. J. (1999). How to handle opposing arguments in persuasive messages: A meta- analytic review of the effects of one-sided and twosided messages. In M. E. Roloff (Ed.), Communication yearbook (Vol. 22, pp. 209–249). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Pace, J. L. (2021). Hard questions: Learning to teach controversial issues. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
Pajares, F., & Miller, M., D., & Johnson, M.J. (1999). Gender differences in writing self-beliefs of elementary school students. Journal of educational Psychology, 91(1), 50-61.
Pajares, F., & Valiante, G. (2001). Gender differences in writing motivation and achievement of middle school students: A function of gender orientation? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(3), 366-381.
Pena, O. (2017). Portfolios Focused on Controversial Issues to Enhance Argumentative Writing Skills [Unpublished Master dissertation]. Universidad Externado de Colombia.
Peterson, S. (2000). Fourth, sixth, and eight graders’ preferred writing topics and identification of gender markers in stories. The Elementary School Journal, 101(1), 79-100.
Plakans, L., & Gebril, A. (2013). Using multiple texts in an integrated writing assessment: Source text use as a predictor of score. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 217–230.
Prior, P. (2001). Voices in text, mind, and society: Sociohistoric accounts of discourse acquisition and use. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10(1/2), 55–81.
Qin, J., and E. Karabacak. 2010. The analysis of Toulmin elements in Chinese EFL university argumentative writing. System, 38(3), 444–456.
Rashtchi, M., Porkar, R., & Ghazi Mir Saeed, F. (2019). Product-Based, Process-Based, and Genre-Based Instructions in Expository Writing: Focusing on EFL Learners’ Performance and Strategy Use. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(6), 115-136.
Raykov, T., & Marcoulides, G. A. (2008). An introduction to applied multivariate analysis. Routledge.
Rowe, G., Macagno, F., Reed, C., & Walton, D. (2006). Araucaria as a tool for diagramming arguments in teaching and studying philosophy. Teaching Philosophy, 29(2), 111-124.
Sadler, T. 2004. Informal reasoning regarding socioscientific issues: A critical review of the research. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 41, 513–536.
Sampson, V., and D.B. Clark. 2008. Assessment of the ways students generate arguments in science education: Current perspectives and recommendations for future directions. Science Education, 92, 447–472.
Sasaki, M. (2000). Toward an empirical model of EFL writing processes: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(3), 259-291.
Scriven, M. (1976). Reasoning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Shi, L. (2004). Textual borrowing in second-language writing. Written Communication, 2, 171–200.
Simon, S., Erduran, S., & Osborne, J. (2006). Learning to teach argumentation: Research and development in the science classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 28, 235–260.
Stapleton, P. (2001). Assessing critical thinking in the writing of Japanese university students. Written Communication, 18, 506–548.
Stapleton, P., and Y. Wu. (2015). Assessing the quality of arguments in students’ persuasive writing: A case study analyzing the relationship between surface structure and substance. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 17, 12–23.
Sunderland, J. (2000). Issues of language and gender in second and foreign language education. Language Teaching, 33(4), 203–223.
Toulmin, S. 1958. The uses of argument. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Toulmin, S. 2003. The uses of argument, vol. 2. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Varghese, S.A., and S.A. Abraham. (1998). Undergraduates arguing a case. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 287–306.
Voss, J. F., Fincher-Kiefer, R., Wiley, J., & Silfes, L. N. (1993). On the processing of arguments. Argumentation, 7, 165-181.
Walton, D. N. (1989). Informal logic: A handbook for critical argumentation. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Wang, W., & Weng, Q. (2002). L1 use in the L2 Composing Process: An exploratory Study of 16 Chinese EFL Writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11, 225-246.
Weigle, S. C., & Parker, K. (2012). Source text borrowing in an integrated reading/writing assessment. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21, 118–133.
Wilder, L. (2005). “The Rhetoric of Literary Criticism” revisited: Mistaken critics, complex contexts, and social justice. Written Communication, 22, 76-119.
Wiley, J., & Voss, J. F. (1999). Constructing arguments from multiple sources: Tasks that promote understanding and not just memory for text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 301-311.
Wolfe, C. R., Britt, M. A., & Butler, J. A. (2009). Argumentation schema and the myside bias in written argumentation. Written Communication, 26, 183-209.
Yeh, S. S. (1998). Empowering education: teaching argumentative writing to cultural minority middle-school students. Research in the Teaching of English, 33(1), 49-83.
You, X. (2004). “The choice made from no choice”: English writing instruction in a Chinese university. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13(2), 97-110.
Zembal-Saul, C. (2009). Learning to teach elementary school science as argument. Science Education, 93(4), 687–719.
Zhang, L. J. (2016). Reflections on the pedagogical imports of western practices for professionalizing ESL/EFL writing and writing-teacher education. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 39(3), 203-232.
Zohar, A. (2008). Science teacher education and professional development in argumentation. In S. Erduran & M.-P. Jimenez-Aleixandre (Org.). Argumentation in Science Education: Perspectives from classroom-based research (pp. 245–268). Dordrecht: Springer.
