نقش زمان‌بندی مصرف درشت‌مغذی‌ها، آب و الکترولیت‌ها در ارتقای عملکرد بدنی ورزشکاران جوان: مرور روایتی بر راهبردهای تغذیه‌ای پیش، حین و پس از تمرین
الموضوعات : Biochemistry and Sport Nutrition
1 - استادیار، گروه علوم ورزشی، دانشکده علوم انسانی، واحد پرند، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، پرند، تهران، ایران.
الکلمات المفتاحية: زمان‌بندی مصرف درشت‌مغذی‌ها در عملکرد ورزشی, کربوهیدرات, پروتئین, چربی, هیدراتاسیون و الکترولیت‌ها,
ملخص المقالة :
این مقاله مروری روایتی به بررسی جامع نقش زمان‌بندی مصرف درشت‌مغذی‌ها، مایعات و الکترولیت‌ها در ارتقای عملکرد بدنی ورزشکاران جوان پرداخته است. اهمیت ویژه‌ای که تغذیه در سنین نوجوانی و جوانی دارد به‌علت تأثیر مستقیم آن بر رشد جسمی، هورمونی و عملکردی مورد تأکید قرار گرفته است. نتایج نشان می‌دهند که نه تنها کیفیت و کمیت درشت‌مغذی‌ها، بلکه زمان دقیق مصرف آن‌ها در پیش، حین و پس از تمرین، تأثیر معناداری بر عملکرد تمرینی و بازیابی عضلانی دارد. در این مطالعه، مشخص شده که مصرف کربوهیدرات‌ها با دقت زمانی، به حفظ انرژی، پیشگیری از افت گلیکوژن و خستگی عضلانی منجر می‌شود. همچنین تأکید شده که استفاده از مکمل‌های کربوهیدرات حین تمرین‌های طولانی برای حفظ عملکرد و تمرکز ذهنی بسیار مؤثر است. از طرف دیگر، مصرف هدفمند چربی‌ها به‌ویژه در تمرینات استقامتی و با شدت متوسط، موجب بهینه‌سازی ذخایر انرژی و کاهش التهاب پس از تمرین می‌شود. در زمینه پروتئین‌ها، نتایج نشان می‌دهند که مصرف آن‌ها در دوره‌های نزدیک به تمرین، به‌ویژه بلافاصله پس از تمرین، برای افزایش توده عضلانی و تقویت بازیابی بسیار مهم است. ترکیب پروتئین و کربوهیدرات در نسبت‌های مناسب، بهترین رویکرد برای بهینه‌سازی سنتز پروتئینی و بازسازی ذخایر گلیکوژن است.
مدیریت مصرف آب و الکترولیت‌ها برای نوجوانان و جوانان در ورزش و فعالیت بدنی نیز به‌عنوان بخش حیاتی از راهبرد تغذیه ورزشی بررسی شده است. نشان داده شده که تنظیم دقیق مصرف مایعات و الکترولیت‌ها پیش از تمرین برای جلوگیری از کم‌آبی بدن، حین تمرین برای حفظ تعادل مایعات، و پس از تمرین برای جبران ذخایر از دست‌رفته، کلیدی است. در نهایت، مقاله بر ضرورت رویکردهای تغذیه‌ای دقیق و فردمحور، و نیاز به دستورالعمل‌های مشخص برای ورزشکاران جوان، به‌ویژه در کشورهای در حال توسعه، تأکید دارد تا از رشد و توسعه پایدار آنان حمایت شود.
مدیریت مصرف آب و الکترولیت‌ها برای نوجوانان و جوانان در ورزش و فعالیت بدنی نیز به‌عنوان بخش حیاتی از راهبرد تغذیه ورزشی بررسی شده است. نشان داده شده که تنظیم دقیق مصرف مایعات و الکترولیت‌ها پیش از تمرین برای جلوگیری از کم‌آبی بدن، حین تمرین برای حفظ تعادل مایعات، و پس از تمرین برای جبران ذخایر از دست‌رفته، کلیدی است. در نهایت، مقاله بر ضرورت رویکردهای تغذیه‌ای دقیق و فردمحور، و نیاز به دستورالعمل‌های مشخص برای ورزشکاران جوان، به‌ویژه در کشورهای در حال توسعه، تأکید دارد تا از رشد و توسعه پایدار آنان حمایت شود.
المصادر:
[1] Brenner, J.S., Council on Sports, Fitness. (2016). Sports specialization and intensive training in young athletes. Pediatrics, 138(3).
[2] Desbrow, B. (2021). Youth athlete development and nutrition. Sports Medicine, 51(Suppl 1), 3-12.
[3] Alcock, R., et al. (2024). Youth and adolescent athlete musculoskeletal health: Dietary and nutritional strategies to optimise injury prevention and support recovery. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(4), 221.
[4] Lassi, Z., Moin, A., Bhutta, Z. (2017). Nutrition in middle childhood and adolescence. In Child and Adolescent Health and Development (3rd ed.).
[5] Burke, L.M., et al. (2019). International Association of Athletics Federations consensus statement 2019: Nutrition for athletics. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 29(2), 73-84.
[6] Amawi, A., et al. (2024). Athletes’ nutritional demands: A narrative review of nutritional requirements. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10, 1331854.
[7] Rodriguez, N.R., Di Marco, N.M., Langley, S. (2009). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: Nutrition and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41(3), 709-731.
[8] Heymsfield, S.B., Shapses, S.A. (2024). Guidance on energy and macronutrients across the life span. New England Journal of Medicine, 390(14), 1299-1310.
[9] Papadopoulou, S.K. (2020). Rehabilitation nutrition for injury recovery of athletes: The role of macronutrient intake. Nutrients, 12(8), 2449.
[10] Knoblauch, M. (2024). Micronutrients. In Clinical Nutrition in Athletic Training (pp. 25-40). Routledge.
[11] Muth, A.-K., Park, S.Q. (2021). The impact of dietary macronutrient intake on cognitive function and the brain. Clinical Nutrition, 40(6), 3999-4010.
[12] Ivy, J.L. (1999). Role of carbohydrate in physical activity. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 469-484.
[13] Turcotte, L.P. (1999). Role of fats in exercise: Types and quality. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 485-498.
[14] Rankin, J.W. (1999). Role of protein in exercise. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 499-511.
[15] Latzka, W.A., Montain, S.J. (1999). Water and electrolyte requirements for exercise. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 513-524.
[16] Barnes, K.A., et al. (2019). Normative data for sweating rate, sweat sodium concentration, and sweat sodium loss in athletes: An update and analysis by sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(20), 2356-2366.
[17] Kerksick, C.M., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Nutrient timing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 1-21.
[18] Jeukendrup, A. (2014). A step towards personalized sports nutrition: Carbohydrate intake during exercise. Sports Medicine, 44(Suppl 1), S25-S33.
[19] da Silva Castanho, R. (2023). Major nutrological approaches to macronutrients in the performance and body composition of highly trained athletes: A systematic review. International Journal of Nutrology, 16(2).
[20] Bingham, M.E., Borkan, M.E., Quatromoni, P.A. (2015). Sports nutrition advice for adolescent athletes: A time to focus on food. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 9(6), 398-402.
[21] Alghannam, A.F., Gonzalez, J.T., Betts, J.A. (2018). Restoration of muscle glycogen and functional capacity: Role of post-exercise carbohydrate and protein co-ingestion. Nutrients, 10(2).
[22] Murray, B., Rosenbloom, C. (2018). Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes. Nutrition Reviews, 76(4), 243-259.
[23] Burke, L.M., Collier, G.R., Hargreaves, M. (1993). Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: Effect of the glycemic index of carbohydrate feedings. Journal of Applied Physiology, 75(2), 1019-1023.
[24] Naderi, A., et al. (2025). Nutritional strategies to improve post-exercise recovery and subsequent exercise performance: A narrative review. Sports Medicine, 1-19.
[25] Jäger, R., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 20.
[26] McIntosh, M.C., et al. (2024). The effects of a sugar-free amino acid-containing electrolyte beverage on 5-kilometer performance, blood electrolytes, and post-exercise cramping versus a conventional carbohydrate-electrolyte sports beverage and water. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 21(1), 2296888.
[27] Martín-Rodríguez, A., et al. (2024). Advances in understanding the interplay between dietary practices, body composition, and sports performance in athletes. Nutrients, 16(4), 571.
[28] Noakes, T.D. (2022). What is the evidence that dietary macronutrient composition influences exercise performance? A narrative review. Nutrients, 14(4), 862.
[29] Varghese, M., Ruparell, S., LaBella, C. (2022). Youth athlete development models: A narrative review. Sports Health, 14(1), 20-29.
[30] Hargreaves, D., et al. (2022). Strategies and interventions for healthy adolescent growth, nutrition, and development. The Lancet, 399(10320), 198-210.
[31] North, M., et al. (2022). Nutritional considerations in high performance youth soccer: A systematic review. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, 4(3), 195-212.
[32] Garthe, I., Maughan, R.J. (2018). Athletes and supplements: Prevalence and perspectives. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(2), 126-138.
[33] Benardot, D. (2024). Nutrition strategies for young athletes: Myths and realities – A review. Journal of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation and Disability, 10(092), 2.
[34] Kerksick, C.M., et al. (2018). ISSN exercise and sports nutrition review update: Research and recommendations. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15(1), 38.
[35] Tarmast, D. (2019). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Carbohydrates. In The 4th National Conference on Novel Approaches to Education and Research.
[36] Nagashima, Y., et al. (2024). High-carbohydrate energy intake during a round of golf maintained blood glucose levels, inhibited energy deficiencies, and prevented fatigue: A randomized, double-blind, parallel group comparison study. Nutrients, 16(23), 4120.
[37] Cheng, G., et al. (2025). An investigation into how the timing of nutritional supplements affects the recovery from post-exercise fatigue: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 12, 1567438.
[38] Trim, W.V., et al. (2023). The impact of physical inactivity on glucose homeostasis when diet is adjusted to maintain energy balance in healthy, young males. Clinical Nutrition, 42(4), 532-540.
[39] Elghobashy, M.E., et al. (2024). Carbohydrate ingestion increases interstitial glucose and mitigates neuromuscular fatigue during single-leg knee extensions. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 56(8), 1495-1504.
[40] Vigh-Larsen, J.F., et al. (2021). Muscle glycogen metabolism and high-intensity exercise performance: A narrative review. Sports Medicine, 51(9), 1855-1870.
[41] Hawley, J.A., et al. (1997). Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance: An update. Sports Medicine, 24(2), 73-81.
[42] Smith, J.A.B., et al. (2023). Exercise metabolism and adaptation in skeletal muscle. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 24(9), 607-632.
[43] Perez-Castillo, I.M., et al. (2023). Compositional aspects of beverages designed to promote hydration before, during, and after exercise: Concepts revisited. Nutrients, 16(1).
[44] Coggan, A.R., Coyle, E.F. (1991). Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: Effects on metabolism and performance. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 19(1), 1-40.
[45] Brouns, F., et al. (1989). Effect of carbohydrate intake during warming-up on the regulation of blood glucose during exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10(Suppl 1), S68-S75.
[46] Fuchs, C.J., Gonzalez, J.T., van Loon, L.J.C. (2019). Fructose co-ingestion to increase carbohydrate availability in athletes. Journal of Physiology, 597(14), 3549-3560.
[47] van Loon, L.J., et al. (2000). Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: Carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydrolysate mixtures. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(1), 106-111.
[48] Ivy, J.L. (2004). Regulation of muscle glycogen repletion, muscle protein synthesis and repair following exercise. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 3(3), 131-138.
[49] Amawi, A., et al. (2024). Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: A narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, 1390204.
[50] Smith, J.W., Holmes, M.E., McAllister, M.J. (2015). Nutritional considerations for performance in young athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine, 2015, 734649.
[51] Tomljanovic, M., et al. (2025). Sports nutrition knowledge and carbohydrate intake in young male elite football players: Insights from a case study of HNK Hajduk Academy. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 10(2), 169.
[52] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part II: Regulation of metabolism and the effects of training. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(5), 293-302.
[53] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part I: Fatty acid mobilization and muscle metabolism. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(4), 231-244.
[54] Tarmast, D. (2020). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Lipids. In The 3rd National Conference on Health and Lifestyle.
[55] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part III: Effects of nutritional interventions. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(6), 371-379.
[56] Alghannam, A.F., Ghaith, M.M., Alhussain, M.H. (2021). Regulation of energy substrate metabolism in endurance exercise. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4963.
[57] Romijn, J.A., et al. (1993). Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. American Journal of Physiology, 265(3 Pt 1), E380-E391.
[58] Benardot, D. (2021). Advanced sports nutrition. Human Kinetics Publishers.
[59] Antonio, J., et al. (2009). Essentials of sports nutrition and supplements. Springer Science & Business Media.
[60] Patnaik, L. (2024). The role of nutrition in improving performance and recovery for athletes. South Carolina State University.
[61] Weichselbaum, E. (2017). Nutrition and teenagers/young adults. In Public Health Nutrition (2nd ed., pp. 159-174).
[62] Tarmast, D. (2020). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Proteins. In The 4th National Conference on Applied Research in Physical Education, Sport & Athletic Science.
[63] Magalhães, P.M., et al. (2024). Effects of a 16-week training program with a pyramidal intensity distribution on recreational male cyclists. Sports, 12(1), 17.
[64] Hayes, A.M., et al. (2025). Moderating carbohydrate digestion rate in mice promotes fat oxidation and metabolic flexibility revealed through a new approach to assess metabolic substrate utilization. European Journal of Nutrition, 64(2), 1-19.
[65] Frisancho, A.R. (2003). Reduced rate of fat oxidation: A metabolic pathway to obesity in the developing nations. American Journal of Human Biology, 15(4), 522-532.
[66] Wang, L., Meng, Q., Su, C.H. (2024). From food supplements to functional foods: Emerging perspectives on post-exercise recovery nutrition. Nutrients, 16(23).
[67] Weyh, C., Kruger, K., Strasser, B. (2020). Physical activity and diet shape the immune system during aging. Nutrients, 12(3).
[68] Shao, T., et al. (2021). Physical activity and nutritional influence on immune function: An important strategy to improve immunity and health status. Frontiers in Physiology, 12, 751374.
[69] Chapman-Lopez, T.J., Koh, Y. (2022). The effects of medium-chain triglyceride oil supplementation on endurance performance and substrate utilization in healthy populations: A systematic review. Journal of Obesity & Metabolic Syndrome, 31(3), 217-229.
[70] Carbone, J.W., Pasiakos, S.M. (2019). Dietary protein and muscle mass: Translating science to application and health benefit. Nutrients, 11(5).
[71] Baranauskas, M., Kupciunaite, I., Stukas, R. (2023). Dietary intake of protein and essential amino acids for sustainable muscle development in elite male athletes. Nutrients, 15(18), 4003.
[72] Esmarck, B., et al. (2001). Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. The Journal of Physiology, 535(1), 301-312.
[73] Bird, S.P., et al. (2024). Supplementation strategies for strength and power athletes: Carbohydrate, protein, and amino acid ingestion. Nutrients, 16(12), 1886.
[74] Craven, J., et al. (2021). The effect of consuming carbohydrate with and without protein on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine – Open, 7, 1-15.
[75] Li, G., Li, Z., Liu, J. (2024). Amino acids regulating skeletal muscle metabolism: Mechanisms of action, physical training dosage recommendations and adverse effects. Nutrition & Metabolism (London), 21(1), 41.
[76] Witard, O.C., Hearris, M., Morgan, P.T. (2025). Protein nutrition for endurance athletes: A metabolic focus on promoting recovery and training adaptation. Sports Medicine, 1-16.
[77] Tarmast, D., Ghosh, A.K. (2024). The impact of carbohydrate, protein, and combined carbohydrate-protein supplementation on muscle damage and oxidative stress markers during prolonged cycling performance in the heat. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 15(2).
[78] Ahmed, T.A.E., et al. (2025). Effect of increased protein intake before pre-event on muscle fatigue development and recovery in female athletes. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 14(1), 6.
[79] Vitale, K., Getzin, A. (2019). Nutrition and supplement update for the endurance athlete: Review and recommendations. Nutrients, 11(6).
[80] Moore, D.R. (2019). Protein metabolism in active youth: Not just little adults. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 47(1), 29-36.
[81] Clauss, M., Jensen, J. (2025). Effect of exercise intensity, duration, and volume on protein oxidation during endurance exercise in humans: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 35(4), e70038.
[82] Ivy, J.L., Ferguson-Stegall, L.M. (2014). Nutrient timing: The means to improved exercise performance, recovery, and training adaptation. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 8(4), 246-259.
[83] Keefe, M.S., et al. (2024). Importance of electrolytes in exercise performance and assessment methodology after heat training: A narrative review. Applied Sciences, 14(22), 10103.
[84] Hoque, M. (2023). A review on different dietary sources of important vitamins and electrolytes. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 4(8), 731-736.
[85] Broad, E., Burke, L.M. (2019). Principles of sports nutrition. In Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes (2nd ed., pp. 21-69). CRC Press.
[86] Maqsood, S., et al. (2025). Date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruit as a functional food for enhancing athletic performance and recovery: A new perspective. eFood, 6(3), e70055.
[87] Arnaoutis, G., et al. (2015). Fluid balance during training in elite young athletes of different sports. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(12), 3447-3452.
[88] Cheuvront, S.N., Kenefick, R.W. (2014). Dehydration: Physiology, assessment, and performance effects. Comprehensive Physiology, 4(1), 257-285.
[89] Carlton, A., Orr, R.M. (2015). The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(4), 357-363.
[90] American College of Sports Medicine, et al. (2007). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: Exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(2), 377-390.
[91] Veniamakis, E., et al. (2022). Effects of sodium intake on health and performance in endurance and ultra-endurance sports. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6).
[92] Van Regenmortel, N., et al. (2022). Effect of sodium administration on fluid balance and sodium balance in health and the perioperative setting: Extended summary with additional insights from the MIHMoSA and TOPMAST studies. Journal of Critical Care, 67, 157-165.
[93] McDermott, B.P., et al. (2017). National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for the physically active. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(9), 877-895.
[94] Baker, L.B. (2019). Physiology of sweat gland function: The roles of sweating and sweat composition in human health. Temperature (Austin), 6(3), 211-259.
[95] Fan, P.W., Burns, S.F., Lee, J.K.W. (2020). Efficacy of ingesting an oral rehydration solution after exercise on fluid balance and endurance performance. Nutrients, 12(12), 3826.
[96] Maughan, R.J. (1991). Fluid and electrolyte loss and replacement in exercise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9(Special No.), 117-142.
[97] Casa, D.J., et al. (2000). National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 35(2), 212.
[98] Maughan, R.J., et al. (2007). The use of dietary supplements by athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(Suppl 1), S103-S113.
[99] Krisher, L., et al. (2020). Electrolyte beverage intake to promote hydration and maintain kidney function in Guatemalan sugarcane workers laboring in hot conditions. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(12), e696-e703.
[1] Brenner, J.S., Council on Sports, Fitness. (2016). Sports specialization and intensive training in young athletes. Pediatrics, 138(3).
[2] Desbrow, B. (2021). Youth athlete development and nutrition. Sports Medicine, 51(Suppl 1), 3-12.
[3] Alcock, R., et al. (2024). Youth and adolescent athlete musculoskeletal health: Dietary and nutritional strategies to optimise injury prevention and support recovery. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 9(4), 221.
[4] Lassi, Z., Moin, A., Bhutta, Z. (2017). Nutrition in middle childhood and adolescence. In Child and Adolescent Health and Development (3rd ed.).
[5] Burke, L.M., et al. (2019). International Association of Athletics Federations consensus statement 2019: Nutrition for athletics. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 29(2), 73-84.
[6] Amawi, A., et al. (2024). Athletes’ nutritional demands: A narrative review of nutritional requirements. Frontiers in Nutrition, 10, 1331854.
[7] Rodriguez, N.R., Di Marco, N.M., Langley, S. (2009). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: Nutrition and athletic performance. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41(3), 709-731.
[8] Heymsfield, S.B., Shapses, S.A. (2024). Guidance on energy and macronutrients across the life span. New England Journal of Medicine, 390(14), 1299-1310.
[9] Papadopoulou, S.K. (2020). Rehabilitation nutrition for injury recovery of athletes: The role of macronutrient intake. Nutrients, 12(8), 2449.
[10] Knoblauch, M. (2024). Micronutrients. In Clinical Nutrition in Athletic Training (pp. 25-40). Routledge.
[11] Muth, A.-K., Park, S.Q. (2021). The impact of dietary macronutrient intake on cognitive function and the brain. Clinical Nutrition, 40(6), 3999-4010.
[12] Ivy, J.L. (1999). Role of carbohydrate in physical activity. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 469-484.
[13] Turcotte, L.P. (1999). Role of fats in exercise: Types and quality. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 485-498.
[14] Rankin, J.W. (1999). Role of protein in exercise. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 499-511.
[15] Latzka, W.A., Montain, S.J. (1999). Water and electrolyte requirements for exercise. Clinical Sports Medicine, 18(3), 513-524.
[16] Barnes, K.A., et al. (2019). Normative data for sweating rate, sweat sodium concentration, and sweat sodium loss in athletes: An update and analysis by sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 37(20), 2356-2366.
[17] Kerksick, C.M., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Nutrient timing. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14, 1-21.
[18] Jeukendrup, A. (2014). A step towards personalized sports nutrition: Carbohydrate intake during exercise. Sports Medicine, 44(Suppl 1), S25-S33.
[19] da Silva Castanho, R. (2023). Major nutrological approaches to macronutrients in the performance and body composition of highly trained athletes: A systematic review. International Journal of Nutrology, 16(2).
[20] Bingham, M.E., Borkan, M.E., Quatromoni, P.A. (2015). Sports nutrition advice for adolescent athletes: A time to focus on food. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 9(6), 398-402.
[21] Alghannam, A.F., Gonzalez, J.T., Betts, J.A. (2018). Restoration of muscle glycogen and functional capacity: Role of post-exercise carbohydrate and protein co-ingestion. Nutrients, 10(2).
[22] Murray, B., Rosenbloom, C. (2018). Fundamentals of glycogen metabolism for coaches and athletes. Nutrition Reviews, 76(4), 243-259.
[23] Burke, L.M., Collier, G.R., Hargreaves, M. (1993). Muscle glycogen storage after prolonged exercise: Effect of the glycemic index of carbohydrate feedings. Journal of Applied Physiology, 75(2), 1019-1023.
[24] Naderi, A., et al. (2025). Nutritional strategies to improve post-exercise recovery and subsequent exercise performance: A narrative review. Sports Medicine, 1-19.
[25] Jäger, R., et al. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 20.
[26] McIntosh, M.C., et al. (2024). The effects of a sugar-free amino acid-containing electrolyte beverage on 5-kilometer performance, blood electrolytes, and post-exercise cramping versus a conventional carbohydrate-electrolyte sports beverage and water. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 21(1), 2296888.
[27] Martín-Rodríguez, A., et al. (2024). Advances in understanding the interplay between dietary practices, body composition, and sports performance in athletes. Nutrients, 16(4), 571.
[28] Noakes, T.D. (2022). What is the evidence that dietary macronutrient composition influences exercise performance? A narrative review. Nutrients, 14(4), 862.
[29] Varghese, M., Ruparell, S., LaBella, C. (2022). Youth athlete development models: A narrative review. Sports Health, 14(1), 20-29.
[30] Hargreaves, D., et al. (2022). Strategies and interventions for healthy adolescent growth, nutrition, and development. The Lancet, 399(10320), 198-210.
[31] North, M., et al. (2022). Nutritional considerations in high performance youth soccer: A systematic review. Journal of Science in Sport and Exercise, 4(3), 195-212.
[32] Garthe, I., Maughan, R.J. (2018). Athletes and supplements: Prevalence and perspectives. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(2), 126-138.
[33] Benardot, D. (2024). Nutrition strategies for young athletes: Myths and realities – A review. Journal of Physical Medicine Rehabilitation and Disability, 10(092), 2.
[34] Kerksick, C.M., et al. (2018). ISSN exercise and sports nutrition review update: Research and recommendations. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 15(1), 38.
[35] Tarmast, D. (2019). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Carbohydrates. In The 4th National Conference on Novel Approaches to Education and Research.
[36] Nagashima, Y., et al. (2024). High-carbohydrate energy intake during a round of golf maintained blood glucose levels, inhibited energy deficiencies, and prevented fatigue: A randomized, double-blind, parallel group comparison study. Nutrients, 16(23), 4120.
[37] Cheng, G., et al. (2025). An investigation into how the timing of nutritional supplements affects the recovery from post-exercise fatigue: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Nutrition, 12, 1567438.
[38] Trim, W.V., et al. (2023). The impact of physical inactivity on glucose homeostasis when diet is adjusted to maintain energy balance in healthy, young males. Clinical Nutrition, 42(4), 532-540.
[39] Elghobashy, M.E., et al. (2024). Carbohydrate ingestion increases interstitial glucose and mitigates neuromuscular fatigue during single-leg knee extensions. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 56(8), 1495-1504.
[40] Vigh-Larsen, J.F., et al. (2021). Muscle glycogen metabolism and high-intensity exercise performance: A narrative review. Sports Medicine, 51(9), 1855-1870.
[41] Hawley, J.A., et al. (1997). Carbohydrate-loading and exercise performance: An update. Sports Medicine, 24(2), 73-81.
[42] Smith, J.A.B., et al. (2023). Exercise metabolism and adaptation in skeletal muscle. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 24(9), 607-632.
[43] Perez-Castillo, I.M., et al. (2023). Compositional aspects of beverages designed to promote hydration before, during, and after exercise: Concepts revisited. Nutrients, 16(1).
[44] Coggan, A.R., Coyle, E.F. (1991). Carbohydrate ingestion during prolonged exercise: Effects on metabolism and performance. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 19(1), 1-40.
[45] Brouns, F., et al. (1989). Effect of carbohydrate intake during warming-up on the regulation of blood glucose during exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 10(Suppl 1), S68-S75.
[46] Fuchs, C.J., Gonzalez, J.T., van Loon, L.J.C. (2019). Fructose co-ingestion to increase carbohydrate availability in athletes. Journal of Physiology, 597(14), 3549-3560.
[47] van Loon, L.J., et al. (2000). Maximizing postexercise muscle glycogen synthesis: Carbohydrate supplementation and the application of amino acid or protein hydrolysate mixtures. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(1), 106-111.
[48] Ivy, J.L. (2004). Regulation of muscle glycogen repletion, muscle protein synthesis and repair following exercise. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 3(3), 131-138.
[49] Amawi, A., et al. (2024). Junior athletes’ nutritional demands: A narrative review of consumption and prevalence of eating disorders. Frontiers in Nutrition, 11, 1390204.
[50] Smith, J.W., Holmes, M.E., McAllister, M.J. (2015). Nutritional considerations for performance in young athletes. Journal of Sports Medicine, 2015, 734649.
[51] Tomljanovic, M., et al. (2025). Sports nutrition knowledge and carbohydrate intake in young male elite football players: Insights from a case study of HNK Hajduk Academy. Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology, 10(2), 169.
[52] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part II: Regulation of metabolism and the effects of training. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(5), 293-302.
[53] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part I: Fatty acid mobilization and muscle metabolism. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(4), 231-244.
[54] Tarmast, D. (2020). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Lipids. In The 3rd National Conference on Health and Lifestyle.
[55] Jeukendrup, A.E., Saris, W.H., Wagenmakers, A.J. (1998). Fat metabolism during exercise: A review – Part III: Effects of nutritional interventions. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 19(6), 371-379.
[56] Alghannam, A.F., Ghaith, M.M., Alhussain, M.H. (2021). Regulation of energy substrate metabolism in endurance exercise. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(9), 4963.
[57] Romijn, J.A., et al. (1993). Regulation of endogenous fat and carbohydrate metabolism in relation to exercise intensity and duration. American Journal of Physiology, 265(3 Pt 1), E380-E391.
[58] Benardot, D. (2021). Advanced sports nutrition. Human Kinetics Publishers.
[59] Antonio, J., et al. (2009). Essentials of sports nutrition and supplements. Springer Science & Business Media.
[60] Patnaik, L. (2024). The role of nutrition in improving performance and recovery for athletes. South Carolina State University.
[61] Weichselbaum, E. (2017). Nutrition and teenagers/young adults. In Public Health Nutrition (2nd ed., pp. 159-174).
[62] Tarmast, D. (2020). Metabolism and nutrients intake in adolescents in exercise: Proteins. In The 4th National Conference on Applied Research in Physical Education, Sport & Athletic Science.
[63] Magalhães, P.M., et al. (2024). Effects of a 16-week training program with a pyramidal intensity distribution on recreational male cyclists. Sports, 12(1), 17.
[64] Hayes, A.M., et al. (2025). Moderating carbohydrate digestion rate in mice promotes fat oxidation and metabolic flexibility revealed through a new approach to assess metabolic substrate utilization. European Journal of Nutrition, 64(2), 1-19.
[65] Frisancho, A.R. (2003). Reduced rate of fat oxidation: A metabolic pathway to obesity in the developing nations. American Journal of Human Biology, 15(4), 522-532.
[66] Wang, L., Meng, Q., Su, C.H. (2024). From food supplements to functional foods: Emerging perspectives on post-exercise recovery nutrition. Nutrients, 16(23).
[67] Weyh, C., Kruger, K., Strasser, B. (2020). Physical activity and diet shape the immune system during aging. Nutrients, 12(3).
[68] Shao, T., et al. (2021). Physical activity and nutritional influence on immune function: An important strategy to improve immunity and health status. Frontiers in Physiology, 12, 751374.
[69] Chapman-Lopez, T.J., Koh, Y. (2022). The effects of medium-chain triglyceride oil supplementation on endurance performance and substrate utilization in healthy populations: A systematic review. Journal of Obesity & Metabolic Syndrome, 31(3), 217-229.
[70] Carbone, J.W., Pasiakos, S.M. (2019). Dietary protein and muscle mass: Translating science to application and health benefit. Nutrients, 11(5).
[71] Baranauskas, M., Kupciunaite, I., Stukas, R. (2023). Dietary intake of protein and essential amino acids for sustainable muscle development in elite male athletes. Nutrients, 15(18), 4003.
[72] Esmarck, B., et al. (2001). Timing of postexercise protein intake is important for muscle hypertrophy with resistance training in elderly humans. The Journal of Physiology, 535(1), 301-312.
[73] Bird, S.P., et al. (2024). Supplementation strategies for strength and power athletes: Carbohydrate, protein, and amino acid ingestion. Nutrients, 16(12), 1886.
[74] Craven, J., et al. (2021). The effect of consuming carbohydrate with and without protein on the rate of muscle glycogen re-synthesis during short-term post-exercise recovery: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine – Open, 7, 1-15.
[75] Li, G., Li, Z., Liu, J. (2024). Amino acids regulating skeletal muscle metabolism: Mechanisms of action, physical training dosage recommendations and adverse effects. Nutrition & Metabolism (London), 21(1), 41.
[76] Witard, O.C., Hearris, M., Morgan, P.T. (2025). Protein nutrition for endurance athletes: A metabolic focus on promoting recovery and training adaptation. Sports Medicine, 1-16.
[77] Tarmast, D., Ghosh, A.K. (2024). The impact of carbohydrate, protein, and combined carbohydrate-protein supplementation on muscle damage and oxidative stress markers during prolonged cycling performance in the heat. Asian Journal of Sports Medicine, 15(2).
[78] Ahmed, T.A.E., et al. (2025). Effect of increased protein intake before pre-event on muscle fatigue development and recovery in female athletes. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 14(1), 6.
[79] Vitale, K., Getzin, A. (2019). Nutrition and supplement update for the endurance athlete: Review and recommendations. Nutrients, 11(6).
[80] Moore, D.R. (2019). Protein metabolism in active youth: Not just little adults. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 47(1), 29-36.
[81] Clauss, M., Jensen, J. (2025). Effect of exercise intensity, duration, and volume on protein oxidation during endurance exercise in humans: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 35(4), e70038.
[82] Ivy, J.L., Ferguson-Stegall, L.M. (2014). Nutrient timing: The means to improved exercise performance, recovery, and training adaptation. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 8(4), 246-259.
[83] Keefe, M.S., et al. (2024). Importance of electrolytes in exercise performance and assessment methodology after heat training: A narrative review. Applied Sciences, 14(22), 10103.
[84] Hoque, M. (2023). A review on different dietary sources of important vitamins and electrolytes. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 4(8), 731-736.
[85] Broad, E., Burke, L.M. (2019). Principles of sports nutrition. In Sports Nutrition for Paralympic Athletes (2nd ed., pp. 21-69). CRC Press.
[86] Maqsood, S., et al. (2025). Date (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruit as a functional food for enhancing athletic performance and recovery: A new perspective. eFood, 6(3), e70055.
[87] Arnaoutis, G., et al. (2015). Fluid balance during training in elite young athletes of different sports. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(12), 3447-3452.
[88] Cheuvront, S.N., Kenefick, R.W. (2014). Dehydration: Physiology, assessment, and performance effects. Comprehensive Physiology, 4(1), 257-285.
[89] Carlton, A., Orr, R.M. (2015). The effects of fluid loss on physical performance: A critical review. Journal of Sport and Health Science, 4(4), 357-363.
[90] American College of Sports Medicine, et al. (2007). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: Exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(2), 377-390.
[91] Veniamakis, E., et al. (2022). Effects of sodium intake on health and performance in endurance and ultra-endurance sports. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6).
[92] Van Regenmortel, N., et al. (2022). Effect of sodium administration on fluid balance and sodium balance in health and the perioperative setting: Extended summary with additional insights from the MIHMoSA and TOPMAST studies. Journal of Critical Care, 67, 157-165.
[93] McDermott, B.P., et al. (2017). National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for the physically active. Journal of Athletic Training, 52(9), 877-895.
[94] Baker, L.B. (2019). Physiology of sweat gland function: The roles of sweating and sweat composition in human health. Temperature (Austin), 6(3), 211-259.
[95] Fan, P.W., Burns, S.F., Lee, J.K.W. (2020). Efficacy of ingesting an oral rehydration solution after exercise on fluid balance and endurance performance. Nutrients, 12(12), 3826.
[96] Maughan, R.J. (1991). Fluid and electrolyte loss and replacement in exercise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 9(Special No.), 117-142.
[97] Casa, D.J., et al. (2000). National Athletic Trainers' Association position statement: Fluid replacement for athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 35(2), 212.
[98] Maughan, R.J., et al. (2007). The use of dietary supplements by athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(Suppl 1), S103-S113.
[99] Krisher, L., et al. (2020). Electrolyte beverage intake to promote hydration and maintain kidney function in Guatemalan sugarcane workers laboring in hot conditions. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 62(12), e696-e703.
