Improving EFL Learners' Writing Accuracy and Fluency through Task-based Collaborative Output Activities and Scaffolding Techniques
Subject Areas : Research in English Language Pedagogy
Khosro Zohrevandi
1
,
Hossein Ahmadi
2
,
Hamid Khalaji
3
1 - Department of English Language, Malayer Branch, Islamic Azad University,
Malayer, Iran
2 - Department of English Language, Malayer Branch, Islamic Azad University, Malayer, Iran
3 - Department of English Language, Malayer Branch, Islamic Azad University, Malayer, Iran
Keywords: Collaborative Output-based Activities, Accuracy, Fluency, scaffolding,
Abstract :
Previous research indicates that task-based collaborative output activities (TBCOA) and scaffolding techniques (ST) lead to improvements in English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ writing skill. However, there seems to be a lack of research on the comparative effects of these activities and techniques on EFL learners' writing accuracy and fluency. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the comparative impacts of two types of TBCOA (debating and dictogloss) versus two types of ST (teacher and peer scaffolding) on Iranian intermediate EFL learners' writing accuracy and fluency (A&F). This research followed a quasi-experimental design. A sample of 80 intermediate-level EFL learners, selected through convenience sampling from a Language School in Malayer, constituted the participants of the study. The learners were divided into four groups (each with 20 members). The homogeneity of the participants in terms of writing A&F was checked through a pretest at the outset of the study. Paired-sample t-tests were run to examine the possible significant changes in scores from the pretest to the posttest in each group. Furthermore, the effects of debating vs. dictogloss, teacher scaffolding vs. peer scaffolding, and overall TBCOA vs. overall ST were compared through ANCOVA, with the pretest scores being treated as the covariate. It was found that debating significantly led to more improvement than dictogloss in the learners' writing A&F. Moreover, teacher scaffolding was more effective than peer scaffolding. Regarding overall TBCOA and ST, the latter was significantly more effective. This research provides implications for EFL writing instruction.
Abasi Mojdehi, H., & Zarei, A.A. (2023). The impact of different scaffolding techniques on IELTS candidates' writing anxiety: From perceptions to facts. Learning Culture and Social Interaction, 40, 1- 10. DOI: 10.1016/j.lcsi.2023.100715.
Allwright, D. (2005). From teaching points to learning opportunities and beyond. TESOL Quarterly, 39, 9-31. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588450.
Amerian, M., Ahmadian, M., & Mehri, E. (2014). Sociocultural theory in practice: The effect of teacher, class, and peer scaffolding on the writing development of EFL learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3(5), 1-12.
Bruner, J. (1985). Vygotsky: A historical and conceptual perspective. In J. V. Wetsch (Ed.), Culture, communication, and cognition: Vygotskian perspectives (pp. 21–34). Cambridge University Press.
Chen, J., Zhang, L. J., & Parr, J. M. (2022). Improving EFL students’ text revision with the Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) model. Metacognition and Learning, 17, 191-211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-021-09280-w.
Choi, I., Land, S. M., & Turgeon, A. J. (2005). Scaffolding peer-questioning strategies to facilitate metacognition during online small group discussion. Instructional Science, 483-511.
Cohen, J. (1960). A coefficient of agreement for nominal scales. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 20 (1), 37–46.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Collins, L. (2007). L1 differences and L2 similarities: Teaching verb tenses in English. English Language Teaching Journal, 61(4), 295-303.
Danli, L. I. (2011). Scaffolding in the second language learning of target forms in peer interaction. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 107-126.
Dörnyei, Z. (2019). What makes an L2 task engaging? In W. Z. Ahmadian MJ (Ed.), Researching L2 task performance and pedagogy: In honor of Peter Skehan (pp. 53-66). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Dobao, A. F. (2012). Collaborative writing tasks in the L2 classroom: Comparing group, pair, and individual work. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(1), 40-58.
Majidi, A. E., de Graaff, R., & Janssen, D. (2020). Debate as L2 pedagogy: The effects of debating on writing development in secondary education. The Modern Language Journal, 104 (4), 804-821.
Ellis, R. (2005). Task-based language learning and teaching (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Farid, A. A. P. A., Setyarini, S., & Moecharam, N. Y. (2017). The implementation of dictogloss storytelling in improving 8th-grade students’ writing skills. Journal of English and Education, 5(1), 85-91.
Fortune, A. (2005). Learners’ use of meta-language in collaborative form-focused L2 output tasks. Language Awareness, 14, 21-38.
Gallego, M. (2014). Second language learners’ reflections on the effectiveness of dictogloss: A multispectral, multilevel analysis. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4 (1), 33-50.
Ge, X., Chen, C. H., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Scaffolding novice instructional designers' problem-solving processes using question prompts in a web-based learning environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 33(2), 219-248.
Golparvar, S. E., & Rashidi, F. (2021). The effect of task complexity on integrated writing performance: The case of multiple-text source-based writing. System, 99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102524.
Green, C. S., & Klug, H. G. (1990). Teaching critical thinking and writing through debates: An experimental evaluation. Teaching Sociology, 18, 462-471.
Holton, D., & Clarke, D. (2006). Scaffolding and metacognition. International Journal Mathematical Education in Science.
Jacobs, H. L., Zingraf, S. A., Wormuth, D. R., Hartfiel, V. F., & Hughey, J. B. (1981). Testing ESL composition: A practical approach. Rowley, MA: Newbury House writing: Research insights for the classroom (pp. 69-87). Cambridge University Press.
Kim, Y., & Kim, J. (2005). Teaching Korean university writing class: balancing the process and the genre approach. Asian EFL Journal, 7(2), 1-15
Kuiken, F. & Vader, I. (2002). The effect of interaction in acquiring the grammar of a second language. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(3-4), 343-358.
Lamb, T. (2008). Learner autonomy and teacher autonomy: synthesizing an agenda. In T. Lamb, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Learner and teacher autonomy: Concepts, realities, and responses (pp. 269-284). John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Latham-Koenig, Ch, Oxenden, Cl., & Chomacki, K (2021). American English File. Oxford University Press.
Lee, L. (2001). Online interaction: Negotiation of meaning and Strategies used among learners of Spanish. Recall, 13(2), 232-244.
Lu, X. (2011). A corpus-based evaluation of syntactic complexity measures as indices of college-level ESL writers’ language development. TESOL Quarterly, 45(1), 36–62.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in an L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562.
Makiabadia, H., Pishghadam, R., Meidania, N., & Khajavy, G. H. (2019). Examining the role of emotioncy in willingness to communicate: A structural equation modeling approach. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 24(7), 120-130.
Malmqvist, A. (2005). How does group discussion in reconstruction tasks affect written language output? Language Awareness, 14, 128-141.
Marashi, H., & Dadari, L. (2012). The Impact of using task-based writing on EFL learners̛ writing performance and creativity. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 2 (12), pp. 2500-2507.
Miller, J. (2008). An introduction to English syntax (2nd ed.). Edinburgh University Press.
Modarresi, Gh. (2021). The Effect of Dictogloss vs. Debating on L2 Writing Proficiency. Teaching English as a Second Language. TESLQ Quarterly, 40 (4) 121-160.
Moor, P. (2006). A Task-based Approach to Oral Work. Available at: https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=fa&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=moor+a+task-+based+approach+to+oral+work&btnG
Nakatani, Y. (2010). Identifying strategies that facilitate EFL learners’ oral communication: A classroom study using multiple data collection procedures. The Modern Language Journal, 94(1), 116-136.
Plakans, L., Gebril, A., & Bilki, Z. (2019). Shaping a score: Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in integrated writing performances. Language Testing, 36, 161– 179.
Pham, V. P. H. (2022). The impacts of task-based instruction on students’ grammatical performances in speaking and writing skills: A quasi-experimental study. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 969-986.
Richards, J. C. (1990). The language teaching matrix. Cambridge University Press.
Richer, D. L. (1992). The effects of two feedback systems on first-year college students writing proficiency. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(08A), 2722.
San Martin, M. G. (2018). Scaffolding the learning-to-teach process: A study in an EFL teacher education program in Argentina. Profile: Issues in Teachers' Professional Development, 20(1), 121-134.
Schwieter, J. W. (2010). Developing second language writing through scaffolding in the ZPD: A magazine project for an authentic audience. Journal of College Teaching and Learning, 7(10), 31-45.
Shooshtari, Z. G., & Mir, F. (2014). ZPD, tutor, peer scaffolding: Sociocultural theory in writing strategies application. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1771-1776.
Skehan, P. (1998 b). Task-based instruction. Annul Review of Applied Linguistics.
Skehan, P. (2009). Modeling second language performance: Integrating complexity, accuracy, fluency, and lexis. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 510-532.
Storch, N. (2009). The impact of studying in a second language (L2) medium university on the development of L2 writing. Journal of Second Language.
Taheri, P., Nazmi, R. (2021). Improving EFL learners' argumentative writing ability: Teacher vs. peer scaffolding. Teaching English Language, 15(2), 299-333. https://doi.org/ 10.22132/TEL.2021.143348.
Talebinezhad, M. R., & Esmaeili, E. (2012). The effects of different task types on EFL learners' acquisition of two grammatical structures (infinitives and gerunds): The case of Iranian high school students. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(8), 1699-1709.
Teng, M. F., Wang, C., & Zhang, L. J. (2022). Assessing self-regulatory writing strategies and their predictive effects on young EFL learners’ writing performance. Assessing Writing, 51, 100573.
Wang, J., & Sneed, S. (2019). Exploring the design of scaffolding pedagogical instruction for elementary preservice teacher education. Journal of Science Teacher Education,1-24.
Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups. International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 21-40.
Wajnryb, R. (1990). Grammar dictation (pp. 7-9). Oxford University Press.
Wolfe–Quintero, K., Inagaki, S., & Kim, H. (1998). Second language development in writing: Measures of fluency, accuracy, and complexity. University of Hawaii at Manoa, Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center.
Yong, F. L. (2010). Attitudes toward academic writing of foundation students at an Australian-based university in Sarawak. European Journal of Social Sciences, 13, 471-477.
Yoon, H. J., & Polio, C. (2016). The linguistic development of students of English as a second language in two written genres. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 42-57.
Zhang, T., Zhang, L. J. (2021). Taking stock of a genre-based pedagogy: Sustaining the development of EFL students’ knowledge of the elements in argumentation and writing improvement. Sustainability,13,11616, 2-24. DOI:10.3390/su132111616.