Mediating Role of Self-Efficacy in the Relationship between Fear of Failure and Academic Competitiveness of High School Students
Subject Areas : Educational Psychology
1 - Counseling Center
2 - PSYCHOLOGY DEPARTMENT. AZARBAIJAN SHAHID MADANI UNIVERSITY
Keywords: Self-Efficac, Fear of Failure, Academic Competitiveness.,
Abstract :
comprehension of learning environments in a competitive way shapes the way students think, feel and behave. the purpose of this research was to investigate the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between fear of failure and academic competitiveness of middle school students in Tabriz. The current research was of a descriptive-correlation type. The statistical population of this research was all secondary school students in Tabriz city in the academic year 1402-1401, and the statistical sample included 320 students from five secondary schools in District 1 and 2 of the first and second term of Tabriz city, which were selected by cluster random sampling method. The measurement tools were including self-efficacy questionnaire, fear of failure questionnaire and academic competitiveness questionnaire. The software used for data analysis was spss version 23 and smart pls.3. The results of the analysis showed that there was relationship between fear of failure and academic competitiveness (β=0.402 and t=7.08) and self-efficacy (β=-0.319 and t=4.83), in addition there was a relationship between self-efficacy and academic competitiveness (β=0.509 and t=10.54). Also، the mediating role of self-efficacy in the relationship between fear of failure and academic competitiveness (-0.163) was significant. Therefore, it can be concluded that self-efficacy had a significant mediating role in the relationship between fear of failure and academic competitiveness of students.
References:
اکبری بلوط بنگان، افضل. (1393). رابطه ساده و چندگانه خودکارآمدی، اهداف پیشرفت و انگیزه پیشرفت در پیش‌بینی پیشرفت تحصیلی دانشجویان دانشگاه علوم پزشکی سمنان. مجله ایرانی آموزش در علوم پزشکی, 14(9), 796-805.
حاج اکبری، الهام؛ عباسی، قدرت الله. اثربخشی درمان گروهی مبتنی بر پذیرش و تعهد (ACT) بر شرم درونی‌شده و ترس از شکست دانش آموزان دختر. رویش روان شناسی. ۱۰ (۴)، ۱۳۳-۱۴۲.
دلاور, علی؛ نجفی, محمود. (1392). خصوصیات روان‌سنجی مقیاس خودکارآمدی عمومی در کارکنان دانشگاه. فصلنامه اندازه گیری تربیتی, 3(12), 87-104.
صادقی، جهانبخش. (1390). عوامل رقابت جویی و رابطه آن با پیشرفت تحصیلی. مدیریت نظامی, 41(11), 43-66.
عبدلی، بهروز؛ احمدی، نصور؛ عظیم زاده، الهام؛ افشاری، جواد. (1392). تعیین روایی و پایایی پرسشنامة ارزیابی شکست در عملکرد. نشریه رشد و یادگیری حرکتی ورزشی, 5(2 (12)), 37-48.
Abdoli, B., Ahmadi, N., Azimzadeh, A., Afshari, J. (2012). Determining the validity and reliability of the performance failure assessment questionnaire. Journal of Sports Movement Learning and Development, 5(2(12)), 37-48. [In Persian].
Akbari Balut Bengan, A. (2013). The simple and multiple relationship of self-efficacy, achievement goals and achievement motivation in predicting the academic achievement of Semnan University of Medical Sciences students. Iranian Journal of Education in Medical Sciences, 14(9), 796-805. [In Persian].
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology، 84(3)، 261-271.
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260–267.
Anderman, E. M., & Midgley, C. (1997). Changes in achievement goal orientations, perceived academic competence, and grades across the transition to middle-level schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(3), 269–298.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64(6), 359–372.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman
Bandura, A., & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goals effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 87–99.
Bandura, A., Reese, L., & Adams, N. E. (1982). Microanalysis of action and fear arousal as a function of differential levels of self-efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(1), 5–21.
Bardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., & Lüftenegger, M. (2019). Has achievement goal theory been right? A meta-analysis of the relation between goal structures and personal achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1197.
Birney, R. C., Burdick, H., & Teevan, R. C. (1969).Fear of failure. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Braaksma, M. A. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 405–415.
Brown, I., & Inouye, D. K. (1978). Learned helplessness through modeling: The role of perceived similarity in competence. Journal of Social Psychology, 36(8), 900–908.
Chan, J. C., & Lam, S. F. (2008). Effects of competition on students' self‐efficacy in vicarious learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(1), 95-108.
Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83.
Conroy, D. E. (2001). Progress in the development of a multidimensional measure of fear of failure: The performance failure appraisal inventory (PFAI). Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 14(4), 431–452.
Conroy, D. E. (2017). Achievement motives. Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application, 2, 25-42.
Delavar, A., Najafi, M. (2012). Psychometric characteristics of general self-efficacy scale in university employees. Educational Measurement Quarterly, 3(12), 87-104. [In Persian].
Dissanayake, I., Mehta, N., Palvia, P., Taras, V., & Amoako-Gyampah, K. (2019). Competition matters! Self-efficacy, effort, and performance in crowdsourcing teams. Information & management, 56(8), 103-158.
Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of competence and motivation. Guilford Publications.
Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Schiff, T. M. (2013). The psychology of competition: A social comparison perspective. Perspectives on psychological science, 8(6), 634-650.
Giel, L. I., Noordzij, G., Noordegraaf-Eelens, L., & Denktaş, S. (2020). Fear of failure: a polynomial regression analysis of the joint impact of the perceived learning environment and personal achievement goal orientation. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 33(2), 123-139.
Haj Akbari, A., Abbasi, Q. (1400). The effectiveness of group therapy based on acceptance and commitment (ACT) on internalized shame and fear of failure in female students. Development of Psychology, 10 (4), 133-142. [In Persian].
Hayat, A. A., Shateri, K., Amini, M., & Shokrpour, N. (2020). Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a structural equation model. BMC medical education, 20(1), 1-11.
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280–1300.
Høigaard, R., Kovaˇc, V. B., Øverby, N. C., & Haugen, T. (2015). Academic self-efficacy mediates the effects of school psychological climate on academic achievement. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 64–74.
Jerusalem, M., & Schwarzer, R. (1994). Self-efficacy as a resource factor in stress appraisal processes. In Self-efficacy (pp. 195-214). Taylor & Francis.
Jiang, Y., Song, J., Lee, M., & Bong, M. (2014). Self-efficacy and achievement goals as motivational links between perceived contexts and achievement. Educational Psychology, 34(1), 92–117.
Kristensen, S. M., Jørgensen, M., & Haug, E. (2024). I want to play a game: Examining sex differences in the effects of pathological gaming, academic self-efficacy, and academic initiative on academic performance in adolescence. Education and Information Technologies, 1-18.
Kurbanoglu, N., & Akin, A. (2010). The relationships between university students' chemistry laboratory anxiety, attitudes, and self-efficacy beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 35(8), 48-59.
Lam, S. F., Yim, P. S., Law, J. S. F., & Cheung, R. W. Y. (2004). The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 281–296.
Lin, S., Fong, C. J., & Wang, Y. (2017). Chinese undergraduates’ sources of self-efficacy differ by sibling status, achievement, and fear of failure along two pathways. Social Psychology of Education, 20(1), 361-386.
Madjar, N., Cohen, V., & Shoval, G. (2018). Longitudinal analysis of the trajectories of academic and social motivation across the transition from elementary to middle school. Educational Psychology, 38(2), 221–247.
Major, B., Testa, M., & Bylsma, W. H. (1991). Responses to upward and downward social comparisons: The impact of esteem-relevance and perceived control. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 237–260). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. (1997). Academic self-concept: Beyond the dustbowl. In G. D. Phye (Ed.), Handbook of classroom assessment: Learning, adjustment, and achievement (pp. 131–198). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2017). Competence selfperceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (2nd, pp. 85–115). The Guilford Press.
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H.W. (2003). “Fear of Failure: Friend or Foe?” Australian Psychologist ,38 (1),31–38.
McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 487–503.
Michou, A., Mouratidis, A., Lens, W., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2013). Personal and contextual antecedents of achievement goals: Their direct and indirect relations to students’ learning strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 187–194.
Nair, P. N., & Sutar, M. D. (2023). Fear of Failure, Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance among College Students. International Journal of Indian Psychȯlogy, 11(3), 375-384.
Noguera, M., Alvarez, C., & Urbano, D. (2013). Socio-cultural factors and female entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(2), 183–197.
Oettingen, G. (1995). Cross-cultural perspectives on self-efficacy. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 149–176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667-686.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & LaPrelle, J. (1985). Social comparison after success and failure: Biased search for information consistent with a self-serving conclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21(1), 195–211.
Sadeghi, J. (1390). Competitiveness factors and its relationship with academic progress. Military Management, 41(11), 43-66. [In Persian].
Schiefele, U. (2017). Classroom management and mastery-oriented instruction as mediators of the effects of teacher motivation on student motivation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 64, 115–126.
Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2021). Self-efficacy and human motivation. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), 8. Advances in Motivation Science. Elsevier.
Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children’s self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313–322.
Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R., & Cox, P. D. (1987). Peer-model attributes and children’s achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(1), 54–61.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs, 35, 37.
Seo, M. G., & Ilies, R. (2009). The role of self-efficacy, goal, and affect in dynamic motivational self-regulation. Organizational behavior and Human Decision processes, 109(2), 120-133.
Sitzmann, T., & Yeo, G. (2013). A meta‐analytic investigation of the within‐person self‐efficacy domain: Is self‐efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance?. Personnel Psychology, 66(3), 531-568.
Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W. (2001). I, we, and the effects of others on me: How self-construal level moderates social comparison effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 766–781.
Stuart, E. M. (2013). The relation of fear of failure, procrastination and self-efficacy to academic success in college for first and non first-generation students in a private non-selective institution. The University of Alabama.
Vancouver, J. B., & Kendall, L. N. (2006). When self-efficacy negatively relates to motivation and performance in a learning context. Journal of applied psychology, 91(5), 1146.
Weissman, L. D., Elliot, J. A., & Sommet, N. (2022).Dispositional predictors of perceived academic competitiveness: Evidence from multiple countries, Personality and Individual Differences, 198(1), 1-9.
Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientations to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236–250.
Yıldırım, M., Kaynar, Ö., Chirico, F., & Magnavita, N. (2023). Resilience and extrinsic motivation as mediators in the relationship between fear of failure and burnout. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(10), 5895.
Zhang, Y., Dong, S., Fang, W., Chai, X., Mei, J., & Fan, X. (2018). Self-efficacy for self-regulation and fear of failure as mediators between self-esteem and academic procrastination among undergraduates in health professions. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 23(3), 817-830.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and educational development. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Selfefficacy in changing societies (pp. 202–231). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
اکبری بلوط بنگان، افضل. (1393). رابطه ساده و چندگانه خودکارآمدی، اهداف پیشرفت و انگیزه پیشرفت در پیش‌بینی پیشرفت تحصیلی دانشجویان دانشگاه علوم پزشکی سمنان. مجله ایرانی آموزش در علوم پزشکی, 14(9), 796-805.
حاج اکبری، الهام؛ عباسی، قدرت الله. اثربخشی درمان گروهی مبتنی بر پذیرش و تعهد (ACT) بر شرم درونی‌شده و ترس از شکست دانش آموزان دختر. رویش روان شناسی. ۱۰ (۴)، ۱۳۳-۱۴۲.
دلاور, علی؛ نجفی, محمود. (1392). خصوصیات روان‌سنجی مقیاس خودکارآمدی عمومی در کارکنان دانشگاه. فصلنامه اندازه گیری تربیتی, 3(12), 87-104.
صادقی، جهانبخش. (1390). عوامل رقابت جویی و رابطه آن با پیشرفت تحصیلی. مدیریت نظامی, 41(11), 43-66.
عبدلی، بهروز؛ احمدی، نصور؛ عظیم زاده، الهام؛ افشاری، جواد. (1392). تعیین روایی و پایایی پرسشنامة ارزیابی شکست در عملکرد. نشریه رشد و یادگیری حرکتی ورزشی, 5(2 (12)), 37-48.
Abdoli, B., Ahmadi, N., Azimzadeh, A., Afshari, J. (2012). Determining the validity and reliability of the performance failure assessment questionnaire. Journal of Sports Movement Learning and Development, 5(2(12)), 37-48. [In Persian].
Akbari Balut Bengan, A. (2013). The simple and multiple relationship of self-efficacy, achievement goals and achievement motivation in predicting the academic achievement of Semnan University of Medical Sciences students. Iranian Journal of Education in Medical Sciences, 14(9), 796-805. [In Persian].
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology، 84(3)، 261-271.
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students' learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80(3), 260–267.
Anderman, E. M., & Midgley, C. (1997). Changes in achievement goal orientations, perceived academic competence, and grades across the transition to middle-level schools. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22(3), 269–298.
Atkinson, J. W. (1957). Motivational determinants of risk-taking behavior. Psychological Review, 64(6), 359–372.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman
Bandura, A., & Locke, E. A. (2003). Negative self-efficacy and goals effects revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 87–99.
Bandura, A., Reese, L., & Adams, N. E. (1982). Microanalysis of action and fear arousal as a function of differential levels of self-efficacy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(1), 5–21.
Bardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., & Lüftenegger, M. (2019). Has achievement goal theory been right? A meta-analysis of the relation between goal structures and personal achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1197.
Birney, R. C., Burdick, H., & Teevan, R. C. (1969).Fear of failure. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
Braaksma, M. A. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van den Bergh, H. (2002). Observational learning and the effects of model-observer similarity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 405–415.
Brown, I., & Inouye, D. K. (1978). Learned helplessness through modeling: The role of perceived similarity in competence. Journal of Social Psychology, 36(8), 900–908.
Chan, J. C., & Lam, S. F. (2008). Effects of competition on students' self‐efficacy in vicarious learning. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 78(1), 95-108.
Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62–83.
Conroy, D. E. (2001). Progress in the development of a multidimensional measure of fear of failure: The performance failure appraisal inventory (PFAI). Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 14(4), 431–452.
Conroy, D. E. (2017). Achievement motives. Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application, 2, 25-42.
Delavar, A., Najafi, M. (2012). Psychometric characteristics of general self-efficacy scale in university employees. Educational Measurement Quarterly, 3(12), 87-104. [In Persian].
Dissanayake, I., Mehta, N., Palvia, P., Taras, V., & Amoako-Gyampah, K. (2019). Competition matters! Self-efficacy, effort, and performance in crowdsourcing teams. Information & management, 56(8), 103-158.
Elliot, A. J., & Dweck, C. S. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of competence and motivation. Guilford Publications.
Garcia, S. M., Tor, A., & Schiff, T. M. (2013). The psychology of competition: A social comparison perspective. Perspectives on psychological science, 8(6), 634-650.
Giel, L. I., Noordzij, G., Noordegraaf-Eelens, L., & Denktaş, S. (2020). Fear of failure: a polynomial regression analysis of the joint impact of the perceived learning environment and personal achievement goal orientation. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 33(2), 123-139.
Haj Akbari, A., Abbasi, Q. (1400). The effectiveness of group therapy based on acceptance and commitment (ACT) on internalized shame and fear of failure in female students. Development of Psychology, 10 (4), 133-142. [In Persian].
Hayat, A. A., Shateri, K., Amini, M., & Shokrpour, N. (2020). Relationships between academic self-efficacy, learning-related emotions, and metacognitive learning strategies with academic performance in medical students: a structural equation model. BMC medical education, 20(1), 1-11.
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52(12), 1280–1300.
Høigaard, R., Kovaˇc, V. B., Øverby, N. C., & Haugen, T. (2015). Academic self-efficacy mediates the effects of school psychological climate on academic achievement. School Psychology Quarterly, 30(1), 64–74.
Jerusalem, M., & Schwarzer, R. (1994). Self-efficacy as a resource factor in stress appraisal processes. In Self-efficacy (pp. 195-214). Taylor & Francis.
Jiang, Y., Song, J., Lee, M., & Bong, M. (2014). Self-efficacy and achievement goals as motivational links between perceived contexts and achievement. Educational Psychology, 34(1), 92–117.
Kristensen, S. M., Jørgensen, M., & Haug, E. (2024). I want to play a game: Examining sex differences in the effects of pathological gaming, academic self-efficacy, and academic initiative on academic performance in adolescence. Education and Information Technologies, 1-18.
Kurbanoglu, N., & Akin, A. (2010). The relationships between university students' chemistry laboratory anxiety, attitudes, and self-efficacy beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 35(8), 48-59.
Lam, S. F., Yim, P. S., Law, J. S. F., & Cheung, R. W. Y. (2004). The effects of competition on achievement motivation in Chinese classrooms. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 281–296.
Lin, S., Fong, C. J., & Wang, Y. (2017). Chinese undergraduates’ sources of self-efficacy differ by sibling status, achievement, and fear of failure along two pathways. Social Psychology of Education, 20(1), 361-386.
Madjar, N., Cohen, V., & Shoval, G. (2018). Longitudinal analysis of the trajectories of academic and social motivation across the transition from elementary to middle school. Educational Psychology, 38(2), 221–247.
Major, B., Testa, M., & Bylsma, W. H. (1991). Responses to upward and downward social comparisons: The impact of esteem-relevance and perceived control. In J. Suls & T. A. Wills (Eds.), Social comparison: Contemporary theory and research (pp. 237–260). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Marsh, H. W., & Craven, R. (1997). Academic self-concept: Beyond the dustbowl. In G. D. Phye (Ed.), Handbook of classroom assessment: Learning, adjustment, and achievement (pp. 131–198). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Marsh, H. W., Martin, A. J., Yeung, A. S., & Craven, R. G. (2017). Competence selfperceptions. In A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (2nd, pp. 85–115). The Guilford Press.
Martin, A. J., & Marsh, H.W. (2003). “Fear of Failure: Friend or Foe?” Australian Psychologist ,38 (1),31–38.
McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31(2), 218–231.
Meece, J. L., Anderman, E. M., & Anderman, L. H. (2006). Classroom goal structure, student motivation, and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57(1), 487–503.
Michou, A., Mouratidis, A., Lens, W., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2013). Personal and contextual antecedents of achievement goals: Their direct and indirect relations to students’ learning strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 23, 187–194.
Nair, P. N., & Sutar, M. D. (2023). Fear of Failure, Academic Self-Efficacy and Academic Performance among College Students. International Journal of Indian Psychȯlogy, 11(3), 375-384.
Noguera, M., Alvarez, C., & Urbano, D. (2013). Socio-cultural factors and female entrepreneurship. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 9(2), 183–197.
Oettingen, G. (1995). Cross-cultural perspectives on self-efficacy. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 149–176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667-686.
Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., & LaPrelle, J. (1985). Social comparison after success and failure: Biased search for information consistent with a self-serving conclusion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 21(1), 195–211.
Sadeghi, J. (1390). Competitiveness factors and its relationship with academic progress. Military Management, 41(11), 43-66. [In Persian].
Schiefele, U. (2017). Classroom management and mastery-oriented instruction as mediators of the effects of teacher motivation on student motivation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 64, 115–126.
Schunk, D. H., & DiBenedetto, M. K. (2021). Self-efficacy and human motivation. In A. J. Elliot (Ed.), 8. Advances in Motivation Science. Elsevier.
Schunk, D. H., & Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children’s self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 313–322.
Schunk, D. H., Hanson, A. R., & Cox, P. D. (1987). Peer-model attributes and children’s achievement behaviors. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(1), 54–61.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized self-efficacy scale. J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs, 35, 37.
Seo, M. G., & Ilies, R. (2009). The role of self-efficacy, goal, and affect in dynamic motivational self-regulation. Organizational behavior and Human Decision processes, 109(2), 120-133.
Sitzmann, T., & Yeo, G. (2013). A meta‐analytic investigation of the within‐person self‐efficacy domain: Is self‐efficacy a product of past performance or a driver of future performance?. Personnel Psychology, 66(3), 531-568.
Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W. (2001). I, we, and the effects of others on me: How self-construal level moderates social comparison effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 766–781.
Stuart, E. M. (2013). The relation of fear of failure, procrastination and self-efficacy to academic success in college for first and non first-generation students in a private non-selective institution. The University of Alabama.
Vancouver, J. B., & Kendall, L. N. (2006). When self-efficacy negatively relates to motivation and performance in a learning context. Journal of applied psychology, 91(5), 1146.
Weissman, L. D., Elliot, J. A., & Sommet, N. (2022).Dispositional predictors of perceived academic competitiveness: Evidence from multiple countries, Personality and Individual Differences, 198(1), 1-9.
Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientations to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236–250.
Yıldırım, M., Kaynar, Ö., Chirico, F., & Magnavita, N. (2023). Resilience and extrinsic motivation as mediators in the relationship between fear of failure and burnout. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(10), 5895.
Zhang, Y., Dong, S., Fang, W., Chai, X., Mei, J., & Fan, X. (2018). Self-efficacy for self-regulation and fear of failure as mediators between self-esteem and academic procrastination among undergraduates in health professions. Advances in Health Sciences Education, 23(3), 817-830.
Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy and educational development. In A. Bandura (Ed.), Selfefficacy in changing societies (pp. 202–231). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
