Learning Collocations: Exploring EFL Learners’ Beliefs and Strategies

Subject Areas : Research in English Language Pedagogy

Farhang Daneshfard ¹ , Mahboobeh Saadat ²

1 -
2 -

Received: 2024-07-08 Accepted : 2024-11-01 Published : 2025-03-11

Keywords: Collocations, Learners’ Beliefs, Learning Problems, Learning Strategies, Thematic Analysis,

Abstract :

Collocations are regarded as a major aspect of learning a foreign language. However, few studies have explored collocations from the learners’ perspective. These issues include the importance of learning collocations and the different strategies and difficulties associated with learning them. Since beliefs are foundational for developing language skills, this study endeavored to fill this gap. Using a mixed-methods design, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 38 Iranian EFL learners majoring in English and, therefore, having above-intermediate knowledge of English. Next, the participants’ recorded responses were probed, tentative themes were drawn, and similar ones were combined to obtain final themes, which were then counted. The findings indicated that learners regarded collocations to be important for various reasons, including the fact that they help with their precision and accuracy (n=14), as well as their naturalness (n=7). Implicit exposure to English, for instance, by watching films (n=19) or reading (n=14), was pinpointed most frequently as an effective means for learning collocations. Furthermore, L1 influence and the vast number of collocations were two of the important difficulties in learning them. In addition, most learners considered learning collocations easier (n=26) and more important (n=20) than learning individual words. Finally, the findings were interpreted through beliefs about external, personal, language-related, and language-learning factors and cognitive, metacognitive, social, compensation, and affective strategies. Implications for language teaching included the responsibility of teachers to reinforce the usefulness of collocations and to set useful tasks. It was also recommended that researchers examine collocation-learning problems in other contexts and compare the effectiveness of the suggested strategies.  

References:

Akbari, Z. (2015). Current challenges in teaching/learning English for EFL learners: The case of junior high school and high school. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 199, 394-401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.07.524
Alexander, P. A., & Dochy, F. J. (1995). Conceptions of knowledge and beliefs: A comparison across varying cultural and educational communities. American Educational Research Journal, 32(2), 413-442. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312032002413
Al-Zahrani, M. S. (1998). Knowledge of English lexical collocations among male Saudi college students majoring in English at a Saudi university [Doctoral dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania]. Proquest. https://www.proquest.com/openview/be8e210d93ad5f40badfbd86ecb839e4/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Amiryousefi, M. (2015). Iranian EFL teachers and learners’ beliefs about vocabulary learning and teaching. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 4(4), 29-40. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsll.2015.1016
Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Walker, D. (2019). Introduction to research in education (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Asbulah, L. H., Aladdin, A., & Sahrim, M. (2020). The effect of motivation on Arabic collocation knowledge: The mediating role of collocation learning strategies. Journal of Nusantara Studies, 5(2), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.24200/jonus.vol5iss2pp1-18
Bahns, J. (1993). Lexical collocations: a contrastive view. ELT Journal, 47(1), 56-63. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/47.1.56
Bahns, J., & Eldaw, M. (1993). Should we teach EFL students collocations? System, 21(1), 101-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251x(93)90010-e
Benson, P., & Lor, W. (1999). Conceptions of language and language learning. System, 27(4), 459-472. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0346-251x(99)00045-7
Bernat, E., & Gvozdenko, I. (2005). Beliefs about Language Learning: Current Knowledge, Pedagogical Implications, and New Research Directions. Tesl-ej, 9(1), n1. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1065832
Bui, T. L. (2021). The role of collocations in the English teaching and learning. International Journal of TESOL & Education, 1(2), 99-109. https://i-jte.org/index.php/journal/article/view/26/15
Bulut, T., & Üğüten, A. G. S. D. (2003). The importance of student perceptions in language teaching. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 11(11), 90-99. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/cusosbil/issue/4367/59733
Darawsheh, W. (2014). Reflexivity in research: Promoting rigour, reliability and validity in qualitative research. International journal of therapy and rehabilitation, 21(12), 560-568. https://doi.org/10.12968/ijtr.2014.21.12.560
Daskalovska, N. (2015). Corpus-based versus traditional learning of collocations. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 28(2), 130-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2013.803982
Ding, C., Reynolds, B. L., & Ha, X. V. (2024). Learners’ perceptions of a collocation instruction and practice component in a Chinese EFL context. The Language Learning Journal, 52(1), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2022.2098366
Dörnyei, Z. (2008). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
Durrant, P., & Schmitt, N. (2010). Adult learners’ retention of collocations from exposure. Second Language Research, 28, 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658309349431
Easterbrook, R. M. (2013). The process of vocabulary learning: Vocabulary learning strategies and beliefs about language and language learning [Doctoral dissertation, University of Canberra]. University of Canberra Research Profiles. https://researchprofiles.canberra.edu.au/files/33684688/file
Ellis, R. (2008). Learner beliefs and language learning. Asian EFL Journal: Conference Proceedings, 10(4), 7-25. https://www.asian-efl-journal.com/December_2008_EBook.pdf?q=2008-journal-of-proceedings#page=7
Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition (2nd edition). Oxford university press.
Fan, M. (2009). An exploratory study of collocational use by ESL students—A task based approach. System, 37(1), 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.06.004
Gu, Y., & Johnson, R. K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes. Language learning, 46(4), 643-679. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01355.x
Hadi, H. U. R., & Guo, X. (2020). A survey of beliefs and vocabulary learning strategies adopted by EFL learners at Shaikh Zayed University. Cogent Education, 7(1), 1829803. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2020.1829803
Hashemi, M., Azizinezhad, M., & Dravishi, S. (2012). Collocation a neglected aspect in teaching and learning EFL. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 522-525. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.097
Hill, J. (2001). Revising priorities: From grammatical failure to collocational success. In M. Lewis (Ed.), Teaching collocation: Further developments in the lexical approach (pp. 47–69). Language Teaching Publications.
Howarth P. (1996). Phraseology in English academic writing: Some implications for language learning and dictionary making. Tübingen.
Hsu, J. (2007). Lexical collocations and their relation to the online writing of Taiwanese college English majors and non-English majors. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 4 (2), 192–209. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED496121
Jeong, H., & DeKeyser, R. (2023). Development of automaticity in processing L2 collocations: The roles of L1 collocational knowledge and practice condition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(4), 930-954. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263122000547
Jiang, Y. (2022). Effects of L1-L2 congruency, collocation type, and restriction on processing L2 collocations. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 947725. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.947725
Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
Laufer, B., & Waldman, T. (2011). Verb‐noun collocations in second language writing: A corpus analysis of learners’ English. Language Learning, 61(2), 647-672. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00621.x
Learn Statistics Easily. (2023, June 2). Understanding convenience sampling: Pros, cons, and best practices. https://statisticseasily.com/convenience-sampling/
Lee, S. (2016). L1 influence on the processing of L2 collocation: An experimental study of Korean EFL learners. Linguistic Research, 33. https://doi.org/10.17250/khisli.33.201609.006
Leśniewska, J. (2006). Collocation and second language use. Studia Linguistica Universitatis Iagellonicae Cracoviensis, 123, 95-105. https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/xmlui/bitstream/handle/item/80860/lesniewska_collocations_and_second_language_use_2006.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Li, S. (2010). Vocabulary learning beliefs, strategies and language learning outcomes: A study of Chinese learners of English in higher vocational education [Doctoral dissertation, Auckland University of Technology] Tuwhera. https://hdl.handle.net/10292/1064
Longcope, P. (2009). Differences between the EFL and the ESL language learning context. Studies in Language and Culture, 30(2), 203-320. https://doi.org/10.18999/stulc.30.2.303
Łuszcz, M. (2016). Enhancing development of communicative skills in English through teaching English collocations in a corpus-based approach. Kalbų Studijos, (29), 88-101. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=481368
Mahvelati, E. H. (2019). Explicit and implicit collocation teaching methods: Empirical research and issues. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 10(3), 105-116. https://doi.org/10.7575//aiac.alls.v.10n.3p.105
Mahvelati, E. H., & Mukundan, J. (2012). The effects of input flood and consciousness-raising approach on collocation knowledge development of language learners. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 1(6), 182-192. http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/ijalel.v.1n.6p.182
McCarthy, M. & O’Dell, F. (2005). English Collocations in Use. Cambridge University Press.
Men, H. Y. (2010). A corpus-based analysis of Chinese EFL learners’ adverb/adjective collocation errors in English writing. Internet Fortune, 4, 108–109.
Men, H. (2015). Vocabulary increase and collocation learning: A corpus-based cross-sectional study of Chinese EFL learners [Doctoral dissertation, Birmingham City University]. BCU Open Access Repository. https://www.open-access.bcu.ac.uk/3870/
Mori, Y. (1999). Epistemological beliefs and language learning beliefs: What do language learners believe about their learning? Language learning, 49(3), 377-415. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00094
Myers, J. & Chang, S. (2009). A multiple-strategy-based approach to word and collocation acquisition. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 47(2), 179-207. https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.2009.008
Naserpour, A., Zarei, A., & Esfandiari, R. (2020). The effects of task orientation and involvement load on learning collocations. Teaching English as a Second Language Quarterly, 39(1), 71-114. https://doi.org/10.22099/jtls.2020.37032.2809
Nesselhauf, N., & Tschichold, C. (2002). Collocations in CALL: An investigation of vocabulary-building software for EFL. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 15(3), 251–279. https://doi.org/10.1076/call.15.3.251.8190
O’Dell, F., & McCarthy, M. (2017). English collocations in use: Advanced (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2017). Learning L2 collocations incidentally from reading. Language Teaching Research, 21(3), 381-402. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815618428
Peters, E. (2016). The learning burden of collocations: The role of interlexical and intralexical factors. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 113-138. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814568131
Pulido, M. F., & Dussias, P. E. (2020). Desirable difficulties while learning collocations in a second language: Conditions that induce L1 interference improve learning. Bilingualism: Language and cognition, 23(3), 652-667. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1366728919000622
Recker, M. M., & Pirolli, P. (2009). Modeling individual differences in students’ learning strategies. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 4(1), 1-38. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0401_1
Saunders, C. H., Sierpe, A., von Plessen, C., Kennedy, A. M., Leviton, L. C., Bernstein, S. L., ... & Leyenaar, J. K. (2023). Practical thematic analysis: a guide for multidisciplinary health services research teams engaging in qualitative analysis. BMJ, 381, Article e074256. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/ bmj-2022-074256
Shin, D., & Nation, P. (2007). Beyond single words: The most frequent collocations in spoken English. ELT Journal, 62(4), 339-348. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccm091
Sun, Y. C., & Wang, L. Y. (2003). Concordancers in the EFL classroom: Cognitive approaches and collocation difficulty. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16(1), 83-94. https://doi.org/10.1076/call.16.1.83.15528
Supasiraprapa, S. (2018). Second language collocation acquisition: Challenges for learners and pedagogical insights from empirical research. Journal of Asia TEFL, 15(3), 797-804. https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.3.15.797
Webb, S., & Kagimoto, E. (2010). Learning collocations: Do the number of collocates, position of the node word, and synonymy affect learning? Applied Linguistics, 32(3), 259-276. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amq051
Wesely, P. M. (2012). Learner attitudes, perceptions, and beliefs in language learning. Foreign Language Annals, 45(1), 98-117. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2012.01181.x
Woolard, G. (2004). Key words for fluency: Upper-intermediate. Thomson ELT.
Wu, S. (2010). Supporting collocation learning [Doctoral dissertation, University of Waikato]. Research Commons. https://researchcommons.waikato.ac.nz/handle/10289/4885
Wu, K. H. (2015). The effect of teaching collocations on the students’ perceptions toward language learning. Studies in English Language Teaching, 3(3), 215-236. https://doi.org/10.22158/selt.v3n3p215
Yamagata, S., Nakata, T., & Rogers, J. (2023). On effective learning of English collocations: From perspectives of distributed practice and semantic restructuring. TESOL Journal, e767. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.767
Yamashita, J., & Jiang, N. (2010). L1 influence on the acquisition of L2 collocations: Japanese ESL users and EFL learners acquiring English collocations. TESOL Quarterly, 44(4), 647-668. https://doi.org/10.5054/tq.2010.235998
Zhang, X., & Reynolds, B. L. (2023). A mixed-methods investigation of the effectiveness and perceptions of learning English collocations using the keyword method and the rote learning method. Behavioral Sciences, 13(7), 591. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs13070591
Zhong, Q. M. (2012). The beliefs and learner strategy use of low-proficiency Chinese learners and their impact on learning English in a New Zealand context [Doctoral dissertation, The University of Auckland]. ResearchSpace.
Zhong, Q. M. (2015). Changes in two migrant learners’ beliefs, learning strategy use and language achievements in a New Zealand context. System, 53, 107–118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2015.07.001
Zhong, Q. M. (2022). Learner beliefs. In S. Li, P. Hiver, & M. Papi (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and individual differences (pp. 381-396). Routledge.
Zimmerman, C. B. (2014). Teaching and learning vocabulary for second language learners. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. M. Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language (pp. 288-302). Cengage Learning.