Utilizing Plant Extracts and Essential Oils as Bio-Based Additives in Biodegradable Polymer Coatings for Food Packaging: A Review
الموضوعات : Food and Health
Marjan Nouri
1
(Department of Food Science and Technology, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran)
الکلمات المفتاحية: biological, / Coating, / Nanoliposome, / Biopolymer, / essential oil,
ملخص المقالة :
Edible films and coatings have gained increasing interest due to demands for convenient, ready-to-eat foods with extended shelf life. However, packaging without additives or pigments is insufficient to preserve foods due to various limitations. This review discusses the potential of utilizing natural extracts and essential oils as promising free or encapsulated additives to enhance the functionality of edible films and coatings. Extracts and essential oils offer antioxidant, antimicrobial and emulsifying properties when incorporated into coatings. Their incorporation level, type and nanoencapsulation influence their activity against food-spoiling microbes and their ability to extend shelf life. Nanoencapsulation preserves bioactive compounds against environmental stresses like oxygen and moisture, prolonging coating stability. This review focuses on recent research evaluating natural extracts and essential oils as additives in edible films and coatings applied to various foods. Their antimicrobial and antioxidant effects on coated substrates are discussed. The benefits and limitations of developing antimicrobial and antioxidant-active packaging technologies are also reviewed. Biodegradable smart coatings utilizing natural additives provide a sustainable food packaging approach with reduced environmental impacts while ensuring safety. Overall, extracts and essential oils show great potential as natural additives to develop high-performance edible films and coatings when applied in free or encapsulated forms.
Promising natural additives and recent advances for organic coatings by biodegradable polymers — free or encapsulated extract and essential oil: A review
ABSTRACT
Edible film and coating have attracted extraordinary consideration from from rising demands for ready-to-eat foods with extended standards and shelf lives. Packaging with no additives or pigments is not sufficient to preserve substrate because of several drawbacks. As a solution, free or encapsulated extract and essential oil with antioxidant, antimicrobial and emulsifying attributes effectively improve coatings. Significant influence is distinguished by type, shape, and level of extracts and essential oils to reduce the microbial load of edible packaging and extend food shelf life. The application of novel methods, such as nanocapsules' presence around plant extracts or essential oils, affects packaging stability due to the preservation of biologically active compounds against environmental factors such as oxygen, light, and moisture, and pH. This procedure involves manipulating atoms and molecules that lead to the formation of nanoscale structures and protecting optimal features such as higher biological activity for extracts or essential oils during the period. The aim of present study is to highlight coated substrate, natural packaging and additives, which these components illustrate great influences when apply with free or encapsulated extract and essential oil. Furthermore, particular importance is given to distinct packaging films to indicate antimicrobial and antioxidant agents in coated substrates. On the contrary, the benefits and disadvantages of antimicrobial packaging and antimicrobial and antioxidant packaging are monitored in current research. The biogenic smart coating has been introduced as an approach requiring less carbon footprints and ensuring food safety; therefore, these films are less expensive, environmentally friendly, biodegradable, and beneficial.
Keywords: Biological. Biopolymer. Coating. Essential oil. Nanoliposome
1. Introduction
The requirement has elevated for product consumption with minimal treatment, therefore, food safety and environmental quality standards are compromised (1). Maintenance procedures include freezing tolerance, heating rate, irradiation conditions, cold plasma treatment, pulsed electric field, pressure distribution, direct preservation and packaging (2). An appreciable consideration has been received for these mentioned processes for food packaging and quality advancement (3). A noticeable attention is attracted to the standard improvement of industrial packaging by developing demand management strategies for ready-to-consume products with broad environmental quality and storage (4). The ecological drawbacks are detected in ordinary polymers because of their non-biodegradability (industrial materials) and intrinsic portion; therefore, biopolymers are proposed to prolong shelf life and can be applied as edible films (EF) and coatings (EC) in food (5).
EF and EC are layers of substances used on edible products, which play a prominent role in their distribution, conservation, and marketing (6). EC is applied as liquid crystal on food by submerging the material into a solution and creating components through the structural integrity such as protein, lipid, carbohydrate or multi-composition also, EF as solid sheets is initially formed, which is used to wrap (7). According to the statements mentioned, and these issues are considered major dissimilarities among food structures (3). Each substance is applied for enrobing (wrapping and coating) several food products to prolong the storage, which is regarded to EF or EC (8). Nevertheless, a film is frequently distinguished from a coating according to the concept, which is an independent wrapping substance, while a coating is employed and produced directly on food packaging (1). EFs and ECs have been applied for years (i.e., wax on different fruits) to avoid moisture waste and form an aesthetic surface (9).
Some factors, including substance type, film formation conditions (pH, solvent, temperature and composition level), cross-linking reagents and also the components of plasticizers, antioxidants, antimicrobials and emulsifiers, have further beneficial impacts on packaging such as environment protection, anti-corrosion, self-healing, nontoxic, UV-shielding and antifouling activity (2, 3). The application of packaging films has several drawbacks for instance, they are fragile and rigid, creating severe restrictions on food technology (10). The negative environmental aspects are observed by the substitution of non-recyclable, lightweight, brittle packaging with substitution to simple recycling (5). The fundamental hazard of nanocomposite substances is mostly related to human ingestion the migration risk for nanoparticles from nanocomposites onto the food interface EC (1). The type, size and shape demonstrate a considerable impact, which can prolong food storage and reduce microbial survival of edible packaging (11). General foods such as fruits, vegetables, meat, dairy and bakery products could delay perishable using antimicrobial packaging because these are affected by microorganisms (9). Foodborne pathogen prevalence is distinguished in packaging as one of the most prominent innovation factors (12).
Nontoxic and natural additives are improved and could play a pivotal role compared to synthetic additives with a toxic nature, which are moreexpensive (2). Nowadays, organic compositions, including plant extracts (Es) and essential oils (EOs) as green additives, have drawn noticeable attention from some researchers to promote packaging (13). Biopolymers as biodegradable constituents have several restrictions, e.g.;,, instabilities, short-term applications, and limited shelf life. Consequently, plant Es or EOs are applied to overcome these drawbacks (5). The use of absorbent or sachets pads for Es and EOs, including (a) application of these factors straightly into polymers (b) addition onto surfaces of polymer (c) its immobilization using covalent or ion bands, and (d) incorporation by creating film are the categories of antimicrobial food packaging regarding to formation approaches in water (1).
The purpose of the present research is to investigate coated substrate, natural food packaging and additives, which these constituents indicate better impacts when used with free or encapsulated Es and EOs such as cinnamon, clove, ginger, green tea, peppermint, thyme, sage, rosemary, Satureja and Panax ginseng. Moreover, considerable attention is attracted by different packaging patterns, including chitosan, gelatin, pullulan, starch, cassava starch, zein, soybean, cellulose, carboxymethyl cellulose, whey protein, polyvinyl alcohol, ethylene/vinyl alcohol, polylactic acid, polyethylene terephthalate, sodium alginate, sodium caseinate, gum arabic, guar gum, hydroxyapatite polymer, hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin, konjac glucomannan, quinoa and furcellaran to adsorb antimicrobials onto coating substrate. On the contrary, migration flow, advantages/drawbacks of antimicrobial packaging, and quantitative monitoring are challenged in the present study, and as a result, demand and industry trends in edible packaging are investigated.
2. Quantitative and chemical composition of Es and EOs
The extraction of bioactive substances from plant sources is investigated by some innovative procedures in present research, and a vast global market is observed for polyphenols (4). The Es are components that are extracted from plant texture using solvents and include distinct chemical substances with beneficial attributes (13). These chemicals contain organic acids, resins, volatile oils, sugars, alkaloids, glycosides, amino acids, tannins, plant pigments, oils, proteins and enzymes (14).
As a complex structure, EOs consist of flavonoids, isoflavones, terpenoids, phenolic acids, carotenoids, alkaloids and aldehydes (15). The EOs and Es possess several bioactive compounds; their polyphenol components (major compounds of vegetable EOs and Es) are portrayed in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 Chemical structures of major bioactive compounds in EOs and Es
2.1. Different forms of Es and EOs to the extent of shelf life
Nanoemulsions (NEs) are considered a group of multiphase colloidal dispersions, whereas several lyotropic liquid crystalline (recognized as micellar systems), mesophases, and microemulsions could indicate that they are the same as NEs in components and nanoscale framework (16). The NE could be applied as a film layer for pesticides that supply more protection against photodegradation and a carrier for nano delivery systems or plant defence for agrochemicals in the agricultural industry (4).
Encapsulation (EP) is a procedure to trap active factors with a carrier material, and it is a beneficial approach to developing the delivery of bioactive components and living cells into food products (17). Nanoparticles observe a greater ratio of volume to surface. Nanoparticles observe a greater ratio of volume to surface with a core-shell structure; consequently, a heterogeneous regulation from core chemistry is detected by surface (18). Nanocapsules (NPs) could show an oleic core that is more adequate for the EP of lipophilic molecules. NPs are one-of-a-kind nanoparticles and supply a superior nanostructure, including a liquid and solid core with polymeric and shells (19). In general, NPs with a hollow core are formed by producing a solid sphere, which is then sacrificed after the polymeric shell structure; so, its application as a sacrificial formation could especially supply a strong spherical structure for NP assembly in multiple polymers (1).
Liposomes (LPs) are small spherical materials consisting of amphipathic lipids arranged in individual or more concentric bilayers with an aqueous system and among the lipid bilayers (20). The EP of bioactive substances with antimicrobial factors into lipid structures named LP is one of the most innovative are extensively applied as carriers because of their specific attributes (17). An inner aqueous phase is created by packing amphipathic lipids, known as EP source for hydrophilic constituents (21). Nanoliposomes (NLPs) produce an enriched source of phospholipids such as phosphatidylcholine or EP and also leak hydrophilic and hydrophobic compositions individually and simultaneously (20).
This section of the present article is divided into two main parts:; A: chemical structures of natural polymers with environmental quality standards in packaging and their Figures (Table 1) and B: Free or EPEs and EPEOs of target plants.
Table 1 Natural biopolymers applied as biodegradable and organic coatings with their corresponding structures reported in present research.
3. A Brief overview of applied polymers
Chitosan as a poly-α (1,4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-β-D-glucan is achieved by N-deacetylation of α-chitin. The inherent drawbacks are the restricted chain flexibility, weak mechanical bond, less thermal sensitivity to water or low adsorbent selectivity ,causing a shorter shelf life and restricted uses in food packaging (4).
Gelatin contains distinct polypeptide chains such as α, β and γ-chains with a molar mass and indicates suitable mechanical and barrier functions, however being biodegradable, environmentally friendly behavior and less price (22).
Gelatin hydrolysate from Nile tilapia skin is formed through hydrolysis with proteases containing favourzyme, papain, bromelain, trypsin, alcalase and neutrase. Gelatin hydrolysate films have higher solubility; thus, their employment as the physical barrier for edible packaging is extremely restricted (33).
Pullulan is a linear glycan with repeating maltotriose units, which forms α-(1 → 4) bonded glucopyranose rings interlinked through α-(1 → 6) linkage. Pullulan films have distinct advantages, for example, less toxicity, more transparency, biodegradability, fine mechanical behavior, and reduction in oxygen permeability, while they have inherent drawbacks of water solubility improvement (16).
Starch polymer consists of unit α-D-glucopyranose happening in the structure of closed six-carbon rings, creating a chain and branched matrix. Starch-based fibers have been produced majorly using mixing modified starches with polymers, cross-linkers, plasticizers and other additive components (23).
Cassava starch is hydrolyzed through a combination of α-amylase and glucoamylase with unstable paste and weak gelling properties. Furthermore, flavorless, low odor, non-toxic, colorless and biodegradable are explained as the drawbacks of cassava starch films (11).
Zein belongs to the prolamin group with molecular weight (about 40 kDa), which is categorized into four classes, including α, β, γ and δ-zein, indicating distinct amino acid sequence, molecular weight and solubility. The aggregation fabrication of active zein as packaging films is challenging because of flexibility and brittleness limitations (8).
Soybean polysaccharide, as an anionic polyelectrolyte, possesses a viscosity structure with a galacturonan backbone that is formed by short homogalacturonan and long rhamnogalacturonan chains. The coatings of soybean protein demonstrated great transparency, flexibility, oxygen barrier and interface hydrophobicity (24).
Cellulose is linked by D-glucopyranosyl units through β-1,4-glycosidic bonds with great chemical resistance, more strength, good durability, high thermal stability and also lack of thermoplasticity, poor antibacterial activity and dimensional stability (25).
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is a linear polysaccharide of anhydro-glucosewhose repeating units are linked using β-1,4- glycosidic bonds. It usually applies as a sodium salt, and chains are dispersed molecularly in solution, and its action conforms to the same scaling laws as synthetic polymer matrixes (26).
Whey protein as globular proteins is fabricated by α-helix patterns, acidic and basic amino acids along their polypeptide chain as well as main components, e.g. bovine serum albumin, immunoglobulins, bovine lactoferrin, bovine lactoperoxidase, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin and glycomacropeptide (6).
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is formed majorly of 1,3 -diol linkage [-CH2CH(OH)CH2CH(OH) -] and a low percentage of 1,2 -diol linkage [-CH2CH(OH)CH(OH)CH2 -] relating to polymerization situation. Wound dressings based on this polymer possess an incomplete hydrophilic activity with ,insufficient elasticity and rigid structure lim, which defines their employment alone as wound dressing scaffolds (27).
Ethylene/vinyl alcohol (EVA) is a popular flexible thermoplastic oxygen barrier materials recently and a prominent factor for shelf-stable foods where oxygen deteriorates the quality of packaged products. EVA copolymers have been identified as active films on distinct substrate coatings (28).
Polylactic acid (PLA) is known as the most innovative material for distinct approaches, and it is synthesized through the ring-opening polymerization of lactide. It is efficient in price because of its suitable molecular weight and application for fixing inner immobilization of bone and joint destruction (29).
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is achieved by monomer polymerization of terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol, which could be depolymerized as a more efficient substitution for mechanical recycling. PET coating exhibits beneficial influences like toughness, mechanical behavior, further melting temperature (270 ◦C), safety and simple procedure in food packaging (15).
Polyethylene is a generally applied thermoplastic with abundant supply, less price, unique processability, less energy for treatments, and more special modulus and strength. Nevertheless, low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a hydrophobic polymer and requires modification to antimicrobial packaging activity (34).
Sodium alginate is formed by alginic acid, including 1,4-β-d-mannuronic and α-l-guluronic acids. It is a linear polysaccharide with good properties like ease of gelation, mucoadhesion, stabilizing nature, high viscosity in water, chelating agent, thickening ability and gelling negotiator; however, it has an acidic character, low mechanical strength and cell adhesion (30).
Sodium caseinate is a component consisting of major subunits, e.g. αs1-, αs2-, β- and κ-casein that is frequently found in polydisperse packages with a (10 to 100 nm) hydrodynamic radius. It is achieved by drying casein micelles coagulated in a sodium hydroxide solution, which has a high nutritional level and great film-forming properties (25).
Gum Arabic consists of β-1,3-linked D-galactose units with branched structures as main chains along with 3-linked arabinose and also rhamnose and glucuronic acid as terminators at the end of chains. Gum Arabic possesses film-producing ability in edible packaging and has poor mechanical stability, weak barrier functions and more hydrophilicity after drying and casting (5).
Guar gum is achieved from the embryos of Cyamopsis tetragonolobus and belongs to the Leguminosae family. It is formed by linear chains of (1→4)-β-d-mannopyranosyl and α-d-galactopyranosyl units interacting with (1→6) linkages. Guar gum is soluble in water and possesses the capability to produce coatings from its solution (29).
Hydroxyapatite polymer as hydrated calcium phosphate is fabricated using apatite mineral material. It has been applied as a bone replacement to fill imperfections, for example, in structure scaffolding for tissue engineering and a film on biomedical implants (31).
Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) contains highly hydrophilic and hydroxyalkyl derivatives of cyclodextrin with more hydroxyl groups. Its particles are constituted by supercritical assisted atomization that could be applied as carriers of pulmonary drugs. HPβCD films were hydrophilic and possessed better compatibility, thermal stability, and ultraviolet-blocking ability, with a smooth and uniform structure (18).
Konjac glucomannan (KGM), as a natural polysaccharide and dietary fiber hydrocolloid, is formed from tubers of Amorphophallus konjac herb, which is a suitable factor for edible packaging. The major chain is bonded through D-mannose and D-glucose units by β-1,4-linking, and the side chain is linked by β-1,6-glycosyl units (9).
Quinoa, as a member of the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae) is enriched with starch and could be applied in chemically modified starches because of its great stability in freezing and retrogradation. Some quinoa proteins are employed to make the coating of edible products and illustrate significant results in their physical activities (32).
Furcellaran comprises sulfated polysaccharides with more molecular weight andgel-forming ability, which is achieved from red algae Furcellaria lumbricalis. It is similar carrageenan, which fabricated powerful and brittle gels with a tendency towards syneresis and less stress susceptibility to low deformations (33).
3.1. Release of Es and EOs from packaging
The main factor in designing active packaging is to control component release for developing function (12). The controlled release of EOs and Es from edible packaging and stimulative features can be significantly important for the practical applications of novel biocomposites (22). Current ways in packaging include microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation for EOs and Es into a solution and emulsion to be coated on film to control release for active substance (1).
4. Free or EPEs and EPEOs of target plants
4.1. Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum J. Presl, Lauraceae family) has the main chemical constituents like (E)-cinnamaldehyde (71.50 %), linalool (7.00 %), β-caryophyllene (6.40 %), eucalyptol (5.40 %) and eugenol (4.60 %), therefore considerable attention has been paid to cinnamon in food conservation (35).
The loaded coating of chitosan/ gelatin nanofiber, including 4 % cinnamon extract (CE) indicated antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (90 ± 6 %) and Escherichia coli (82 ± 5 %), however was not detectable in the control. It could occur because the main chemical components in these coatings elevated antibacterial traits (22). The microbial combination of molds and yeasts was found 5.30 (log CFU. g-1) for control by enhancing growth compared to 3.80 (log CFU. g-1) for the coated sample with 2 % chitosan and 1 % cinnamon EO (CEO), which had occurred owing to antimicrobial traits of chitosan and CEO in treated pineapple (36). The mold and yeast counts were 1.958 ± 0.03 (log CFU. g-1) for pullulan coating based on NEs loaded with 8 % CEO in contrast to 4.657 ± 0.08 (log CFU. g-1) for pure pullulan and 4.778 ± 0.05 (log CFU. g-1) in control for strawberries since NEs loaded with EO were more efficient on inhibitory activities against mold and yeast because of their compositions (16).
The bioactive coating of soluble soybean polysaccharide incorporated loaded NEs with (0.8 %) CEO elevated antioxidant activities 10.8 ± 0.17 % than control 1.04 ± 0.51 % in meat products due to coating acted as a barrier against the migration of active packaging materials and increased these features (24). The coating containing NEs loaded with 5 % (w/w) CEO and 2.5 % (w/w) cellulose nanofiber increased antioxidant function (66.04 ± 4.22 %) compared to 5 % (w/w) sodium caseinate (26.1 ± 1.58 %) in perishable foods, indicating that coatings blocked oxygen, inhibited the activity of ascorbates and delayed the oxidation. It could be related to the possible contact of CEO components to cellulose nanofiber hydroxyl structures, causing their lower function (25).
4.2. Clove (Syzygiumaromaticum L. Myrtaceae) is recognized as an aromatic plant which is extensively cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions (39). It is applied as volatile substances, e.g. eugenol, β-caryophyllene and α-humulene in perfume, cosmetic, health, medical and flavoring industries (23).
The growth of Salmonella Typhimurium (7.1 log CFU. mg-1) and Listeria monocytogenes (5.7 log CFU. mg-1) was detected in chicken samples packed with low-density polyethylene film (LDPE) at the end of storage, however they were not observed in LDPE film incorporated with chromic acid and 0.5 (g) clove EO (CLEO). The major functional compounds such as eugenol and carvacrol were represented in EO, so these penetrate the membrane of bacterial cells and damage structure. This is possibly owing to an additional exterior wall for bacteria that restricts the distribution of hydrophobic components by the cytoplasmic wall (34). Escherichia coli O157:H7 count was the most for control 8.1 (log CFU. g-1). Still, the lowest was observed for silver carp fillet coated with 3 % (w/v) carboxymethyl cellulose and 1.5 % (w/v) sodium alginate containing 1.5 % CLEO, showing that the presence of several components in CLEO, for example, eugenol, propylene glycol and benzothiophene. Previous research expressed that CLEO presented an inhibition effect versus Escherichia coli O157:H7, and the antimicrobial capacity was lean on the amount of oil (36).
Antioxidant activity of starch EF incorporated with 3 % CLEO was 85.96 ± 0.14 % and 0.7 ± 0.057 % in control after 90 min incubation, which could be related to increased phenolic contents in CLEO like eugenol, caryophyllene, humulene and caryophyllene oxide (23). The ratio of (1:1) HPβCD coating with encapsulated CLEO (EPCLEO) had higher antioxidant behavior 28.70 ± 0.77 %, while this feature was 25.20 ± 1.02 % for free CLEO (0.01 g), which was due to an increase in water solubility of EPCLEO. CLEOs were detected not to reveal antioxidant capacity, specifically. However, the particles produced with cyclodextrin exhibited a significant influence on this feature. It corresponded to the higher solubility of low-polar substances that exist in EPCLEO by cause of their interaction with cyclodextrins. Furthermore, the formulations produced with HPβCD represented further antioxidant capacity (18).
4.3. Ginger (Zingiber officinale L.) is generally regarded as a herbal plant composed mainly of α-zingiberene, α-curcumene and β-sesquiphellandrene. Its volatile and non-volatile components are candidates for improving active packaging in comparison with biopolymers (27).
The treated meat with zein coating, including 3 % ginger extract (GE) and 1.5 % Pimpinella anisum EO showed the highest reduction rate of mesophilic bacteria 4.13 (log CFU. g-1), lactic acid bacteria (LAB) 2.68 (log CFU. g-1), Enterobacteriaceae 3.84 (log CFU. g-1), Pseudomonas spp. 2.74 (log CFU. g-1), molds and yeasts 1.99 (log CFU. g-1) compared to control. The antimicrobial activity of GE was enhanced by more concentration, and a synergistic influence was found when GE was mixed with Pimpinella anisum EO (8). The mentioned nanofiber (0.21, 0.31 and 0.41 g) in suspensions with PVA gel was blended using ultrasonication. The bionanocomposite coating with ginger nanofibers exhibits antibacterial function, however fungi feature is not found. The microbial inhibition of Bacillus subtilis was distinguished 14. 2 ± 1.3 (mm) in biocomposite of 10 g PVA coating with 20 % ginger nanofibers (GF), however was not detected in PVA as control. The antibacterial impact occurred because of bioactive substances in GF and coating. Nonetheless, total bionanocomposite coatings could not prevent the Candida albicans population, possibly owing to less ginger fiber with bioactive components. A correlation was not detected between the inhibition area's diameter and fiber loadings (27).
The antioxidant feature was not changed in the EC of gum arabic (10 %) with GE and garlic extract at the same level (100 g) for Gola guava fruits. The distinct bioactive components, for example, flavonoids, ascorbic acid and phenolics, assist the antioxidant potential of fruits and their deterioration results in lower antioxidant status. Even though gum arabic and garlic extract prevented the reduction in phenolics, flavonoids and ascorbic acid, all antioxidants were elevated approximately in guava fruits with no additives (5). The highest antioxidant activity (50.5 µmol TE/g) was reported in strawberries by incorporation of (1 and 2 %) nanofibrillated cellulose coating with green tea extract (GTE) and GEO at the same concentration (1 %). The efficacy of ECs as oxidation protectors is related to their capacity and oxygen barrier performance (37).
4.4. Green tea (Camelia sinensis) has numerous bioactive components that can supply beneficial health behaviors such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic, antiproliferative, antihypertensive and anti-thrombogenic (28).
The colony diameter of Penicillium expansum was counted for EVA copolymer as control (2.97 ± 0.13 cm) and was not observed in a film loaded with oregano EO (OEO) or complex of GTE and OEO (at the same concentration 5 %) during 12 days. Therefore, OEO and GTE had better antifungal impact due to carvacrol's presence by damaging the cell membrane with increasing fluidity and passive permeability (volatile phenolic with powerful antibacterial activity) reacted with the cell wall. It created a deformity of the physical framework and non-steady wall, developing penetration and fluidity. According to GTE, the antifungal and antimicrobial compositions could need a liquid culture to be liberated and fabricate any detectable impact (28). Microbial bactericidal concentrations of Staphylococcus aureus 0.57 (mg. mL-1) and Escherichia coli 1.15 (mg. mL-1) were found for EP of green tea EO (GTO) with 1 % chitosan nanoparticles against EP of peppermint EO (PEO) 1.11 (mg. mL-1) and > 2.72 (mg. mL-1), respectively. It related to lipophilic oil interaction and phospholipid membrane that induced permeability for EP of GTO (17).
The antioxidant capacity in terms of DPPH was detected 8.525 ± 0.384 (mg VC/dm2) in coated pork meat with PET and 8 % GTE in contrast to PET 0.010 ± 0.002 (mg VC/dm2) as a control, which was attributed to high catechins in GTE (15). The PVA film incorporated with 2 % GTE showed 68 % antioxidant function compared to 37 % in PVA film with 0.5 % GTE on dried eel. It corresponded to distinct catechin components by adding more GTE. When the H2O molecule was connected to water, it transferred into the structure of PVA packaging,causing the inflation of film. Also, GTE was liberated from packaging to contribute the activity of scavenging DPPH radical (10).
4.5. Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) is recognized as a plant with functional characteristics belongingto the Labiatae family (38). Peppermint extract (PE) includes polyphenolic components, mainly flavonoids, phenolic acids, lignans and stilbenes. The considerable antibacterial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiallergic activities are observed (31).
Total coliforms were observed 4.4 (log10 CFU. g-1) for 1.5 % chitosan-based coating enriched with 10 % PE in carp fillet, while control without coating and PE reached 6.3 (log10 CFU. g-1) at the end of the period, because the interaction of PE was occurred between molecules in the microbial membrane, causing leakage of cell proteins and intracellular substances (21). The hydroxyapatite coated with 1 % PEO had inhibition zones for Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923 (10 ± 0.5 mm) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 27853 (7 ± 0.5 mm) compared to 12 ± 0.3 and 10 ± 0.5 mm in pure PEO, respectively. The presence of menthol and menthone components in PEO and hydroxyapatite acted to damaghydroxyapatite, which damaged the cell membrane and led to its destabilization (31). Antifungal activity against both Botrytis cinerea and Rhizopus stolonifer was measured 2.0 ± 0.1 (cm) for 4 % (m/v) gelatin film incorporated with mint EO (MEO) at 0.38 and 0.50 % concentrations but this feature was not found in MEO below the minimum level of 0.25 % as control. It could be attributed to increased menthol by adding more MEO (38).
TBARS assay values were observed at 29.21 (mM MDA/mg protein) for 1.5 % chitosan-based coating enriched with 10 % PE in carp fillet and 33.44 (mM MDA/mg protein) for control. This could be owing to the antioxidant rate of chitosan that fabricated a stable fluorosphere with aldehydes and positive charges in amine structures to perform as a chelating factor of metal ions, therefore avoiding lipid peroxidation (21). The DPPH scavenging activity was 69.79 % for (2 % w/v) chitosan film based on the mixture of PEO and fennel EO (FEO) at the same concentration (1 % v/v) in contrast to 54.88 % for control without film, PEO and FEO. It was associated with moderate levels of phenolic, which were reported in PEO and FEO, and chitosan reacted with hydrogen molecules in a solution to fabricate ammonium groups NH3+ (39).
4.6. Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.), an annual plant, is cultivated in the Mediterranean region, belongs to the Lamiaceae family and is consumed mainly for cooking and flavoring (26). It is applied in folk medicine for several purposes, such as respiratory inflammation, urinary infection, gastric inflammation, atrophic arthritis, oral infections, and antispasmodic, diuretic, and expectorant activities (9).
The growth of Aspergillus in coated fresh hazelnut incorporated to 1.5 % (w/v) CMC and 1 % (v/v) thyme extract (TE) was not found at the end of storage against 78 % in control without coating. It was represented that moisture loss avoided oxygen penetration to nut texture and antifungal impact of TE (26). Inhibition zones were determined for Listeria monocytogenes (163.68 ± 10.89 mm2), Staphylococcus aureus (115.65 ± 10.66 mm2) and Escherichia coli O157:H7 (59.53 ± 8.44 mm2) in 0.8 (g) KGM based film loaded with 1.6 % (v/v) thyme EO (TEO), while were not presented in pure film. It corresponded to carvacrol and thymol in TEO that could distribute in the lipid phase of the bacteria membrane, thereby changing the calcium environment and preventing the transport of potassium and calcium (9).
The antioxidant activity in terms of DPPH for nanofiber based on PLA/guar gum with a ratio of 85:15 and 30 % TEO was indicated (68 %) compared to pure film (32 %) because of high total phenolics in TEO. When thyme is added to the nanofibers framework, the antioxidant potency is significantly (p < 0.05) enhanced up to 55 % and 75 % in nanofibers consisting of 10 % and 30 % thyme, respectively. In addition to, DPPH scavenging ability was developed by adding TEO (29). The EC50 of film containing 0.2 g chitosan and 0.8 g starch incorporating 0.15 g TE was calculated 0.90 (kg film/mol DPPH) against control without TE 1.061 (kg film/mol DPPH). The better antioxidant activity was shown by film with adding TE due to more polyphenol release and potential oxidation of substances (40). The NP of (40 %) TEO in (2 % w/v) chitosan/ (9 % w/v) gelatin nanofibers had an antioxidant feature (30 %) than pure TEO (8 %) in sausages after 18 days because the phenolic compounds in NP were greater protected against oxygen. The antioxidant effect of TEO was enhanced noticeably towards the encapsulated structure for 1st day of shelf life, and phenolic contents were immediately accessible to free radicals. EP of TEO improved antioxidant features towards control after 18th day, on account of the phenolic compositions were greater supported against oxygen (41).
4.7. Sage (Salvia officinalis), belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is cultivated in several countries as a medicinal herb. The phytochemical analysis exhibited that the main constitutes are monoterpenes (α/β-thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor and linalool), sesquiterpenes (α–humulene) and important phenolic components are carnosol, carnosic acid and rosmanol (32, 43).
The growth of Salmonella enterica was observed 6.00 ± 0.00 (log CFU. mL-1) in EC of 25 % (w/w) zein enriched with 20 and 30 % (w/w) sage extract (SE) and 10.51 ± 1.07 (log CFU. mL-1) in control without SE, which was related to total phenolic content by destructing cell wall, changing the structure and permeability of cytoplasmic membrane (42). The rainbow trout fillets covered with quinoa as a polymer and 2 % sage EO (SEO) showed 4.34 ± 0.01 (log CFU. g-1) Enterobacteriaceae compared to 5.89 ± 0.05 (log CFU. g-1) for control without coating and SEO on 15 days of storage. The phenolic structure of SEO prevented functional activities by destroying the cell membrane and leakage, so an antimicrobial response was observed (32).
The antioxidant feature was assessed 85.27 % for 10 % (w/w) -based films enriched with 20 % SE compared to 6.12 % in control with no film and SE after 24 h. The SE neutralized free radicals and prevented oxidation processes by releasing bioactive components. The antioxidant feature of sage extracts was distinguished by most efficient substances with free radical scavenging activities such as phenolic compositions, i.e., abietane diterpenoids (carnosic and carnosol acid) with caffeic acid derivates including chlorogenic, rosmarinic and caffeic acids (13). The whey protein isolates (5 % w/v) based EF incorporated with SE (4 %) in cooked meatballs had higher DPPH radical 63.30 ± 3.19 % than cooked meatballs as control 45.78 ± 2.04 % on 60 days. Bioactive components such as carnosol, carnosic acid and rosmarinic acid caused antioxidant activity in sage (6).
4.8. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) s belongs to the Lamiaceae family and is applied as a herbal remedy and spice. The rosmarinic acid, diterpenes (carnosic acid, rosmanol and carnosolas) as well as non-volatile triterpenic components (betulinic and ursolic acids) are detected (3).
The population of LAB was evaluated 5.74 ± 0.18 (log CFU. g-1) for 2000 (ppm) rosemary EO (REO) entrapped in carboxymethyl cellulose EC for smoked eel fillets compared to 6.48 ± 0.06 (log CFU. g-1) for control fillets. It could be corresponded to rosmarinic acid against free radicals in REO (16). The 20 % RE incorporated within cassava starch film increased the antioxidant effect (81.9 ± 1.7 %) compared to film with 5 % RE (28.6 ± 0.3 %), indicating phenolic contents were enhanced by adding more RE (11).
The trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity was detected 1.9 and 0.32 (mg. L-1) for ratio of gelatin/chitosan EF (50:50) mixed with rosemary extract (RE) and CE at the same concentration 1 % after 6 min, respectively. It illustrated that the capacity of polymer and RE was elevated to interact with free radicals using ionic interactions with amino substances (3). The FRAP assay was distinguished 207.08 ± 1.30 (μmol Trolox/g of dried film) for film based on 0.73 % (w/v) furcellaran / 1.46 % (w/v) gelatin hydrolysate with 20 % RE in contrast to 2.78 ± 0.04 (μmol Trolox/g of dried film) for control coating without RE due to a high level of polyphenol compounds was observed in Es (33).
4.9. Satureja belongs to the Lamiaceae family, which is observed in several components, for instance, γ-terpinene, borneol, carvacrol, p-cymene and thymol in its different species (49). The distinct species of Satureja are detected for different therapeutic impacts on wounds, gastroenteritis and respiratory tract infections (19).
The coated treatment with 2 % (w/v) chitosan solution containing 1 % (v/v) Satureja khuzestanica EO (SKEO) loaded NLPs had 3.2 (log CFU. g-1) total bacteria count in contrast to lamb meat as a control 7.5 (log CFU. g-1) after 10 days. The synergies effect was observed by chitosan coating with lipophilic bioactive substances incorporated in SKEO because of its intrinsic antimicrobial characteristics (43).
The antioxidant function was detected 60 % and 43.5 % in chitosan nanoparticles (5 % w/v) loaded with 1.5 and 1 % Satureja hortensis L. EO (SHEO), respectively. Further total phenolics, e.g. thymol, γ-terpinene and carvacrol, are presented in SHEO by adding more concentration. Some phenolic compounds have also been applied to regulate the leakage of bioactive substances from NPs with remarkable antioxidant potential (19).
4.10. Panax ginseng (ginseng), as a traditional herb, includes distinct active ingredients such as protopanaxadiols, steroidal saponins and protopanaxatriols in Asian countries, collectively recognized as ginsenosides. It has different beneficial impacts, including anti-stress, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic features (30).
Sodium alginate film (2 g) containing 1 % extruded white ginseng extract (GSE) indicated an inhibition effect on Listeria monocytogenes (13.83 ± 0.10 mm), but no activity against this strain was observed in the control film. It is related to components and the interaction between film and GSE (44).
Antioxidant activities of 2 g sodium alginate film incorporating 0.5 g/mL GSE was found to be 18.5 % by DPPH than 1.5 % in the control film. This ability is mainly because of phenolics and their redox feature, which led them to perform as reducing factors, hydrogen donators, and oxygen quenchers (30).
5. Concerns and solutions corresponded to the application of EOs and Es in polymers
Edible packaging is prominent for declining post-harvest loss through protecting quality during transportation and controlling (2). Nowadays, biodegradable packaging from natural substances and the implementation of recycling technologies have been improved in advanced countries (4). Leaf packaging is rejected in the environment, where it sustains anaerobic and aerobic decomposition through microorganisms and helps soil fertilization; therefore, it is the best approach to reduce the use of fossil-based plastics (12).
5.1. A trend to accelerate packaging technology: future prospective
Biogenic smart packaging has been illustrated as an approach required to reduce carbon footprints and protect the safety of food products; so, these films are less costly, environmentally friendly, beneficial, and biodegradable (4). Integrating bionanocomposite and their application as a biosensor can be a milestone for developing smart EFs in the packaging industry (12). Therefore, it is important to detect biosensors and bio nanocomposites for improving affordable and sustainable smart packaging (1). Distinct nanoparticles based delivery systems are accessible to incorporate active factors into biodegradable packaging, including NEs, NLPs, biopolymer nanoparticles, nanogels, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructured carriers (5).
6. Conclusion
Nowadays, EOs and Es as natural resources from plants are suitable alternatives to synthetic chemical nanoparticles that resist pathogenic microorganism strains and have antioxidant traits, which do not exhibit any toxic and irreversible effects on human health. Therefore, attention is paid to present science with novel approaches, and these EOs and Es are classified as Safe. Particularly, the antibacterial and antioxidant functions of bio-based polymers e.g. chitosan, gelatin, gelatin hydrolysate, pullulan, starch, cassava starch, zein, soybean, cellulose, CMC, whey protein, PVA, EVA, PLA, PET, sodium alginate, sodium caseinate, gum arabic, guar gum, hydroxyapatite, HPβCD, KGM, quinoa and furcellaran are associated with EOs and Es e.g. cinnamon, clove, ginger, green tea, peppermint, thyme, sage, rosemary, satureja, Panax ginseng (ginseng), Eucalyptus globulus, basil, lemongrass, oregano, fennel, Tribulus terrestris L. are explained. Moreover, clinical researchtheir ability as controlled drug delivery systems and be applied to humans.
Acknowledgements
We considerably appreciate all participants who assisted in the present research.
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|
|
|
|
| (4) |
Gelatin |
| (22) |
Pullulan
|
| (16) |
Starch |
| (23) |
Cassava starch
|
| (11) |
Zein
|
| (8) |
Soybean |
| (24) |
Cellulose |
| (25) |
Carboxymethyl cellulose |
| (26) |
Whey protein |
| (6) |
Polyvinyl alcohol |
| (27) |
Ethylene/vinyl alcohol |
| (28) |
Polylactic acid
|
| (29)
|
Polyethylene terephthalate |
|
(15) |
Sodium alginate |
| (30) |
Sodium caseinate |
| (25) |
Gum arabic
|
| (5) |
Guar gum |
| (29) |
Hydroxyapatite polymer |
| (31) |
Hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin |
| (18) |
Konjac glucomannan |
| (9) |
Quinoa |
| (32) |
Furcellaran |
| (33) |
Fig. 1 Chemical structures of major bioactive compounds in EOs and Es
