• Home
  • Ecological Design of Urban Landscape

Share To

Article Url


Manuscript ID : 533533 Visit : 109 Page: 35 - 46

Article Type: Original Research

Ecological Design of Urban Landscape

Subject Areas : Space Ontology International Journal

Maryam  Kamyab Teimouri 1 (M.U.D., Faculty of Archietecture and Urban Planning, Qazvin Branch ,Islamic Azad University , Gazvin, Iran)

Received: 2017-10-15 Accepted : 2017-10-15 Published : 2018-06-01

Keywords: urban landscape, Urban ecology, Ecological Urban Landscape,

Abstract :

Paying attention to the spatial placement of the elements (man-made or natural) based on the landscape pattern and ecological processes in urban design would have a considerable impact on both human and the nature. In a way that the discords in the placement of patchs in respect to each other, or in respect to visual corridors and urban matrixes lead to the unwanted results in the cities. The effect of such discords can be seen in continental changes, loss of energy (increase in the consumption of fossil energies), etc. Aim of this study is to design a city based on the recognition of relationships between the patches and corridors and natural/ artificial matrixes; also, introduction and the design method based on the fundamental urban landscape guidelines which is done with a qualitative approach in the form of library research and identification of the situation, size and other elements of patches, corridors and matrixes by using aerial-photos and GIS maps. Based on this, the research compilation process is in a way that first discusses the importance of this subject and the design methods in this study and different suggested methods in the field of ecological urban landscape design and explores Iranian and worldwide experimentations on the subject by presenting new solutions like the placement of the artificial and natural patch and corridors, matrixes, e.g, designing beach parks across the rivers to protect and maintain the natural corridor, preservation of green patches as the urban-parks, etc. The author hopes that presented solutions of this research in the field of design, would help to solve the mentioned issues and problems regardless of its minor delineation.

References:


  1. Ahern, J. (1999). Spatial concepts, planning strategies, and future scenarios: A framework method for integrating landscape ecology and landscape planning. In J.Klopatek, & R. Gardner (Eds.), Landscape ecological analysis: Issues and applications(pp. 175–199). New York: Springer-Verlag.
    2.
  2. Ahern, J., (2007). Green infrastructure for cities: the spatial dimension. Cities Futur.Integr. Sustain. Water Landsc. Manag., pp268-271.
    3.
  3. Antrop, M., (1998). Landscape change: plan or chaos? Landscape Urban Plann. 41,155–161.
    4.
  4. Alberti, M., J. M. Marzluff, E. Shulenberger, G. Bradley, C. Ryan, and C. Zumbrunnen. 2003.Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems.BioScience 53:1169-1179.
    5.
  5. Alberti, M. 2008. Advances in Urban Ecology: Integrating Humans and Ecological Processes in Urban Ecosystems. Springer, New York. 366 pp.
    6.
  6. Alberti, M., (1999). Urban patterns and environmental performance:whatdo we know? J. Plan. Educ. Res. 19, 151–163, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0739456X9901900205
    7.
  7. Antrop, M., (2000). Geography and landscape science. Belgian Journal of Geography.Belgeo special issue. 29th International Geographical Congress (1/4), 9-35.
    8.
  8. Aminzadeh, B. and Khansefid, M. (2009). A case study of urban ecological networks and a sustainable city: Tehran’s metropolitan area. J. Springer Sci. Urban Ecosystems. (DOI 10.1007/s 11252- 009- 0101- 3) 13, 23- 36.
    9.
  9. Bargh Jelveh, Shahindokht; (2007), Analysis of the territorial changes in the visage of  Tehran based on the operational factors of the greenroad networks, Urban Management Magazine, issue 27, Tehran University of Tehran, Department of Fine Arts..(In Persian)
    10.
  10. Bastian, O., Grunewald, K., Syrbe, R.-U., Walz, U., Wende, W., (2014). Landscape ser-vices: the concept and its practical relevance. Landsc. Ecol. 29, 1463–1479,http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-014-0064-5.
    11.
  11. BehzadFar, Mostafa, (2007), Dictionary Of Urban Design, Research project done in the center for urbanization and architecture research.(In Persian)
    12.
  12. Berger, J., Sinton, J.W., (1985). Water, Earth, and Fire: Land Use and Environmental Planning in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
    13.
  13. Band, L. E., M. L. Cadenasso, C. S. B. Grimmond, J. M. Grove, and S. T. A. Pickett. (2005).Heterogeneity in urban ecosystems: patterns and process, pp 257-278. In Lovett, G., C. G.Jones, M. G. Turner, and K. C. Weathers (Eds.). Ecosystem Function in Heterogeneous Landscapes. Springer-Verlag, New York.
    14.
  14. Cadenasso, M.L., S.T.A. Pickett, and J.M. Grove. (2006)a. Dimensions of ecosystem complexity:heterogeneity, connectivity, and history. Ecological Complexity 3:1-12.
    15.
  15. Beazley, E. & Harverson, M. (1982) Living With the Desert: Working Buildings of the Iranian Plateau, Aris & Phillips, Warminster Wilts     
    16.
  16. Bonine, M. E., ed. (2000) “Sustainable desert housing: from the dwelling to the desert community”, Regional Symposium,  Iran:Yazd 
    17.
  17. Brandt, J., (1998). Key concepts and interdisciplinarity in landscape ecology: a summing-up and outlook. In: Dover, J.W. and Bunce, R.G.H. eds. Key concepts in landscape ecology: proceedings of the 1998 European Congress of the International Association for Landscape Ecology, held at the Myerscough College 3rd-5th September 1998. IALE International Secretariat,Guelph, 421-434.
    18.
  18. Cadenasso,M.L.,Pickett,S.T.A.,Schwarz,K., (2007). Spatial heterogeneityin urban ecosystems: reconceptualizing land cover and a frameworkfor classification. Front. Ecol. Environ., http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[80:SHIUER]2.0.CO;2.
    19.
  19. Cadenasso, M.L., S.T.A. Pickett, L.E. Band, G.S. Brush, M.F. Galvin, P.M. Groffman, J.M. Grove, G.Hagar, V. Marshall, B. McGrath, J. O'Neil-Dunne, B. Stack, and A. Troy. 2008. Exchanges across land-water-scape boundaries in urban systems: Strategies for reducing nitrate pollution.Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1134:213-232
    20.
  20. Cadenasso, M. L. and S. T. A. Pickett. (2008), Urban Principles for Ecological Landscape Design and Management: Scientific Fundamentals. Cities in theEnvironment 1(2).
    21.
  21. Carreiro, M.M. and C.E.Tripler (2005). Forest remnants along urban-rural gradients: examining their potential for global change research. Ecosystems 8:568-582.
    22.
  22. Cook, E.A., (2002). Landscape structure indices for assessing urban ecological networks. Landsc. Urban Plan. 58, 269–280.
    23.
  23. Clay, G. (1973). Close Up: How to Read the American City. Praeger Publishers, New York. 192 pp.
    24.
  24. Claval, P.L., (2004). The languages of rural landscapes. In: Palang, H. ed. European rural landscapes: persistence and change in a globalising environment. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 11-40
    25.
  25. Forman, R.T.T. (1995). Land Mosaics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
    26.
  26. Forman, R.T.T. and Godron, M. (1986). Landscape Ecology. John Wiley, York.
    27.
  27. Forman, R., Godron, M., (1986). Landscape Ecology. John Wiley, New York.Fry, J., Xian, G., Jin, S., Dewitz, J., Homer, C., Yang, L., Barnes, C., Herold, N., Wickham, J.,2006. Completion of the 2006 national land cover database for the coterminousUnited States. Photogramm. Eng. Remote Sensing 77, 858–864.
    28.
  28. Forman, R.T.T., Sperling, D., Bissonette, J., Clevenger, A.P., Cutshall, C.D., Dale, V.H.,Fahrig, L., France, R., Goldman, C.R., Heanue, K., Jones, J.A., Swanson, F.J.,Turrentine, T., and Winter, T.C. (2003). Road Ecology: Science and Solutions, Island Press, Washington
    29.
  29. Felson, A.J. and S.T.A. Pickett (2005). Designed experiments: new approaches to studying urban ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and Environment 3:549-556
    30.
  30. Grove, J. M., W.R. Burch, M. Wilson, and A.W. Vemuri. (2007). The mutual dependence of social meanings, social capital, and the design of urban green infrastructure, pp 66-77. In McGrath,B., V. Marshall, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, S.T.A. Pickett, R. Plunz, and J. Towers (Eds.).Designing Patch Dynamics. Columbia, Graduate School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation, New York, NY.
    31.
  31. Grove, J.M., A.R. Troy, J.P.M. O'Neill-Dunne, W.R. Burch, Jr., M.L. Cadenasso, and S.T.A. Pickett.(2006)a. Characterization of households and its implications for the vegetation of urban ecosystems. Ecosystems 9:578-597.
    32.
  32. Grove, J.M., M.L. Cadenasso, W.R. Burch, Jr., S.T.A. Pickett, K. Schwarz, J.P.M. O'Neill-Dunne, M.A. Wilson, A. Troy, and C.G. Boone. (2006)b. Data and methods comparing social structure and vegetation structure of urban neighborhoods in Baltimore, Maryland. Society & Natural Resources 19:117-136.
    33.
  33. Grove, J.M., W.R. Burch, Jr., and S.T.A. Pickett. (2005). Social mosaics and urban community forestry in Baltimore, Maryland, pp 249-273. In Lee, R.G. and D.R. Field (Eds.). Communities and Forests: Where People Meet the Land. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis.
    34.
  34. Grimm, N.B., S.B. Faeth, N.E. Golubiewski, C.L. Redman, J. Wu, X. Bei, and J.M. Briggs. (2008).Global change and the ecology of cities. Science 319:756-760.
    35.
  35. Grimm, N.B., J.M. Grove, S.T.A. Pickett, and C.L. Redman. (2000).Integrated approaches to long-term studies of urban ecological systems. BioScience 50:571-584.
    36.
  36. Gottdiener, M. and R. Hutchison.(2000). The New Urban Sociology. Second Edition. McGraw Hill,New York. 390 pp.
    37.
  37. Granö, J.G., 1929. Reine Geographie: eine methodologische Studie beleuchtet mit Beispielen aus Finnland und Estland, Helsinki. Acta Geographica no. 2
    38.
  38. Jax, K. (2006). Ecological units: definitions and application. Quarterly Review of Biology 81:237-258.
    39.
  39. Jax, K., C. Jones, and S.T.A. Pickett. (1998). The self-identity of ecological units. Oikos 82:253-264.
    40.
  40. Jongman, R. H. G. and Pungetti, G. P. (2004). Ecological Networks and Greenways Concept, Design, Implementation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. UK
    41.
  41. Kenworthy,J.R.(2006).Dimensions for sustainable city development in the third world. Environment Urbanization,67-84.
    42.
  42. Khansefid, Mahdi; Municipality Monthly; (2008); analysis the transmittance of urban green spaces with an ecologic landscape approach and its relation with urban stability: Tehran city, Special Ed, Spring 147.(In Persian)
    43.
  43. Kolasa, J., and S.T.A. Pickett (Eds.). (1991). Ecological Heterogeneity. Springer-Verlag, New York. 332pp.
    44.
  44. Klopatek, J.M., Gardner, R.H. (Eds.), (1999). Landscape Ecological Analysis: Issues and Applications. Springer, New York
    45.
  45. Kolen, J. and Lemaire, T. (eds.), (1999). Landschap in meervoud: perspectieven op het Nederlandse landschap in de 20ste/21ste eeuw. Jan van Arkel, Utrecht
    46.
  46. Leser,H;(1976);Landshaftsökologie,UTB/Ulmer,p19
    47.
  47. Li, X., Zhang, L., Liang, C., (2010). A GIS-based buffer gradient analysis onspatiotemporal dynamics of urban expansion in Shanghai and its majorsatellite cities. Procedia Environ. Sci. 2, 1139–1156.
    48.
  48. Lin, T., Xue, X., Shi, L., Gao, L., (2013). Urban spatial expansion and its impacts onisland ecosystem services and landscape pattern: a case study of the island cityof Xiamen, Southeast China. Ocean & Coastal Manage. 81, 90–96.
    49.
  49. Luck, M. and J. Wu. (2002). A gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern: a case study from the Phoenix metropolitan region, Arizona, USA. Landscape Ecology 17: 327-339.
    50.
  50. Leit˜ao, A.B., Miller, J., Ahern, J., and McGarigal, K. (2006). Measuring Landscapes: A Planner’s Handbook. Island Press, Washington.
    51.
  51. Leit˜ao, A.B. and Ahern, J. (2002). Applying landscape ecological concepts and metrics in sustainable landscape planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 59(2): 65–93.
    52.
  52. Lörzing, H. and Simon, R., (2001). The nature of landscape: a personal quest. 010 Publishers, Rotterdam.
    53.
  53. Lowenthal, D., (1961). Geography, experience, and imagination: towards a geographical epistemology. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 51, 241-260
    54.
  54. Mehdizadeh Seraj, Fatemeh; Nasabi, Fatemeh; Hoseini, seyed bagher; (2007); Principles in reaching stability in the cities according to the native urbanization of Iran, Haft Shahr, issue 21. (In Persian)
    55.
  55. Mikaeili, Alireza, Sadeghi Bines; (2009), ecological network of Tabriz city, and suggested solutions to reach and develop, environmental studies, issue 2. .(In Persian)
    56.
  56. Moeinifar, Maryam, Aminzadeh, Behnaz; (2011), Presenting a new approach in ecological green urban landscapes (Kish Island case study), Urban identity magazine, issue 10. .(In Persian)
    57.
  57. Moss, M.R. and Milne, R.J., (1999). Landscape synthesis: concepts and applications:landscape system analysis in environment management: Working Group of the International Association for Landscape Ecology. University of Guelph,Guelph
    58.
  58. Meffe, G.K., Nielsen, L.A., Knight, R.L., Schenborn, D.A., (2002).Ecosystem Management. Island Press, Washington, DC.
    59.
  59. Machlis, G.E., J.E. Force, and W.R. Burch. (1997). The human ecosystem. 1.The human ecosystem as an organizing concept in ecosystem management. Society & Natural Resources 10:347-367.
    60.
  60. Naveh, Z., (2000). What is holistic landscape ecology? a conceptual introduction.Landscape and Urban Planning, 50 (1/3), 7-26.
    61.
  61. Ndubisi, F. (2002). Ecological Planning: A Historical and Comparative Synthesis. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
    62.
  62. Nassabi, F. & Moradi, A. M., (2007) “Bazaar of Tabriz; a sustainable architecture and urban area in Iran”,
    63.
  63. ENHR 2007 International Conference ‘Sustainable Urban Areas’
    64.
  64. Nassabi, F., Alalhesabi, M & Hosseini, S.B. (2007) “Social, cultural and spiritual spaces role in a sustainable human habitat in Iran, Case study: Khan Square (Meydan-e-Khan) in Yazd, Iran”, The 9th International
    65.
  65. conference on Humane Habitat (ICHH)
    66.
  66. Olwig, K.R., (2002). Landscape, nature, and the body politic: from Britain's renaissance to America's new world. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.
    67.
  67. Olwig, K.R.,(2004). "This Is Not A Landscape": circulating reference and land shaping. In: Palang, H. ed. European rural landscapes: persistence andchange in a globalising environment. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, 41-66.
    68.
  68. Palmer, M., E. Bernhardt, E. Chornesky, S. Collins, A. Dobson, C. Duke, B. Gold, R. Jacobson, S.Kingsland, R. Kranz, M. Mappin, M.L. Martinez, F. Micheli, J. Morse, M. Pace, M. Pascual,S. Palumbi, O.J. Reichman, A. Simons, A. Townsend and M. Turner. (2004). Ecology for a Crowded Planet. Science 304:1251-1252.
    69.
  69. Parivar, P; Yavari, A. R; Faryadi Sh., (2008), Survey of the temporal changes and spatial distribution of the green spaces in Tehran city in regard to the territorial visage scales, Environmentology Magazine, issue 45: 73-84. (In Persian)
    70.
  70. Parivar, P; Yavari, A. R; Faryadi Sh. and Sotoudeh. A; (2009). An Analysis of ecological structure of Tehran territorial visage to compose solutions in order to upgrade the quality of environment, environmentology magazine, issue 51: 45-56.(In Persian)
    71.
  71. Pickett, S.T.A., W. Burch, Jr., S. Dalton, T.W. Foresman, and R. Rowntree. (1997). A conceptual framework for the study of human ecosystems in urban areas. Urban Ecosystems 1:185-199.
    72.
  72. Pickett, S.T.A. and M.L. Cadenasso. (1995). Landscape ecology: spatial heterogeneity in ecological systems. Science 269:331-334.
    73.
  73. Pickett, S.T.A., M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Pouyat, W.C. Zipperer, and R.Costanza. (2001). Urban ecological systems: linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
    74.
  74. 32:127-157.
    75.
  75. Pickett,S.T.A.and M.L.Cadenasso.(2002).Ecosystem as a multidimensional concept: meaning, model and metaphor. Ecosystems 5:1-10.
    76.
  76. Pourjafar, Mohammad; Mohammadreza; Alavi Belmani, Maryam; Fathollahi, Yaghoub; Pourjafar, Ali, Urban Management (2010); Presentation of video-ecology and extraction of coordination and discord  standards of visual spaces with the visual system from the video-ecological researches done on the different building fontviews; issue 27, Spring and Summer; 196-183. .(In Persian)
    77.
  77. Pulliam, H.R. and B.R. Johnson. (2001). Ecology's new paradigm: what does it offer designers and planners? pp. 51-84. In Johnson B.R. and K. Hill (Eds.). Ecology and Design: Frameworks for Learning. Island Press, Washington, DC.
    78.
  78. Plunz, R. (2007). Apropos "patch dynamics": notes on indeterminacy as operational philosophy in design, pp 42-53. In McGrath, B., V. Marshall, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, S.T.A. Pickett,R. Plunz, and J. Towers (Eds.). Designing Patch Dynamics. Columbia Graduate School of Architecture, Planning and Preservation, New York, NY.
    79.
  79. Ratti,C.,Raydan,D.,Steemers, K., (2003). Building form and environmental perfor-mance: archetypes, analysis and an arid climate. Energy Build.35,49–59, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7788(02)00079-8.
    80.
  80. Ratti, C., Richens, P., (2004). Raster analysis of urban form. Environ. Plan. B: Plan. Des.31, 297–309, http://dx.doi.org/10.1068/b2665.
    81.
  81. Rezazadeh, Raziyeh; Doctrines and principles of orders and regulations of city visage, Research project done in the center for urbanization and architecture research.(In Persian)
    82.
  82. Risser PG, Karr JR, Forman RTT (1984) Landscape ecology:directions and approaches. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publ. 2, Champaign.
    83.
  83. Ridd, M.K. (1995). Exploring a V-I-S (vegetation-impervious surface-soil) model for urban ecosystem analysis through remote sensing: comparative anatomy for cities. International Journal of Remote Sensing 16:2165-2185.
    84.
  84. Steiner, F.R. (2002). Human Ecology: Following Nature's Lead. Island Press, Washington, DC. 237 pp.
    85.
  85. Shane, D.G. (2005). Recombinant Urbanism: Conceptual Modeling in Architecture, Urban Design, and City Theory. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken. 344 pp.
    86.
  86. Spirn; Anne Whiston; (2008); The Language of Landscape, trans, Hosein Bahraini, Behnaz Aminzadeh; second Ed, Tehran University Press, Tehran, 19.(In Persian)
    87.
  87. Troy, A.R., J.M. Grove, J.P.M. O'Neil-Dunne, S.T.A. Pickett, and M.L.Cadenasso. (2007). Predicting opportunities for greening and patterns of vegetation on private urban lands. Environmental Management 40:394-412.
    88.
  88. Troll, C., (1939). Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung. F. Steiner Verlag,Wiesbaden. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin.
    89.
  89. Troll, C., (1950). Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung. Studium Generale, 3 (4/5), 163-181.
    90.
  90. Troll, C., (1959). Der Stand der geographischen Wissenschaft und ihre Bedeutung für die Aufgaben der Praxis. Forschungen und Fortschritte, 30 (9), 257-262.
    91.
  91. Troll, C., (1966). Landschaftsökologie als geographisch-synoptische Naturbetrachtung.In: Troll, C. ed. Ökologische Landschaftsforschung und vergleichendeHochgebirgsforschung. F.Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 366. Erdkundliches Wissen Heft 11.        
    92.
  92. Troll, C., (1968). Landschaftsökologie. In: Tüxen, R. ed. Pflanzensoziologie und Landschaftsökologie: Berichte über das 7ten Internationale Symposium der Internationalen Verein für Vegetationskunde 1963. Junk, Den Haag.
    93.
  93. Troll, C., (1939). Luftbildplan und ökologische Bodenforschung. F. Steiner Verlag,Wiesbaden. Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin.
    94.
  94. Troll, C., (1950). Die geographische Landschaft und ihre Erforschung. Studium Generale, 3 (4/5), 163-181.
    95.
  95. Troll, C., (1959). Der Stand der geographischen Wissenschaft und ihre Bedeutung für die Aufgaben der Praxis. Forschungen und Fortschritte, 30 (9), 257-262.
    96.
  96. Troll, C., (1966). Landschaftsökologie als geographisch-synoptische Naturbetrachtung.In: Troll, C. ed. Ökologische Landschaftsforschung und vergleichendeHochgebirgsforschung. F.Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden, 366. Erdkundliches Wissen Heft 11.        
    97.
  97. Troll, C., (1968). Landschaftsökologie. In: Tüxen, R. ed. Pflanzensoziologie und Landschaftsökologie: Berichte über das 7ten Internationale Symposium der Internationalen Verein für Vegetationskunde 1963. Junk, Den Haag.
    98.
  98. Turner, M.G. (Ed.). (1987). Landscape Heterogeneity and Disturbance. Springer-Verlag, New York.239 pp.
    99.
  99. Turner, M.G. (1989). Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 20:171-197.
    100.
  100. Turner, M.G., and J.A. Cardille. (2007). Spatial heterogeneity and ecosystem process, pp 62-77. In Wu,J. and R. Hobbs (Eds.). Key topics in landscape ecology. Cambridge University Press, NewYork.
    101.
  101. Voigt, A., Kabisch, N., Wurster, D., Haase, D., Breuste, J.,2014. Structural diversity:a multi-dimensional approach to assess recreational services in urban parks.Ambio43,480–491, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s13280-014-0508-9.
    102.
  102. Wang, Tai, chi; Yuen, Belinda; (2003), Ecological urban design, Trans, Mohammadreza Rahnama, Elahe Karimi; first ed; Mashhad; Jahaddaneshgahi Pub, 26. (In Persian)
    103.
  103. Wulff, Hans E. (1966) The Traditional Crafts of Persia. Cambridge, MA: The M.I.T. Press
    104.
  104. Wu, J., (2006). Landscape ecology, cross-disciplinarity, and sustainability science.Landscape Ecol. 21, 1–4.
    105.
  105. Wu, J., (2010). Landscape of culture and culture of landscape: does landscape ecology need culture? Landscape Ecol. 25, 1147–1150.
    106.
  106. Wu, J., (2014). Urban ecology and sustainability: the state-of-the-science and futuredirections. Landscape Urban Plann. 125, 209–221
    107.
  107. Wu J (2013) Key concepts and research topics in landscape ecology revisited: 30 years after the Allerton Park workshop.Landscape Ecol 28:1–11
    108.
  108. Wiens, J.A. (2000). Ecological heterogeneity: an ontogeny of concepts and approaches, pp 9-31. In Hutchings, M.J., E.A. John, and A.J.A. Stewart (Eds.). The ecological consequences of environmental heterogeneity. Blackwell, Malden, MA.
    109.
  109. Wiens, J.A., (1995). Landscape mosaics and ecological theory. In:Hansson, L., Fahrig, L., Merriam, G. (Eds.), Mosaic Landscapes and Ecological Processes. Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 1–26
    110.
  110. Ye, Y., Zhang, H., Liu, K., Wu, Q., (2013). Research on the influence of site factors onthe expansion of construction land in the Pearl River Delta, China: by using GISand remote sensing. Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf. 21, 366–373.Yu, X.J., Ng, C.N., (2007). Spatial and temporal dynamics of urban sprawl.
    111.
  111. Zonneveld, I.S., (1995). Land ecology: an introduction to landscape ecology as a base for land evaluation, land management and conservation. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam.
    112.
  112. Zonneveld, I.S., (2000). Count your blessings? twenty-five years of landscape ecology.In: Klijn, J.A. and Vos, W. eds. From landscape ecology to landscape science: proceedings of the European congres on Landscape ecology: things to do - proactive thoughts for the 21st century, organised in 1997 by the Dutch Association for Landscape Ecology (WLO) on the occasion of its 25th anniversary. Kluwer, Dordrecht, 30-42
    113.

Related articles

The rights to this website are owned by the Raimag Press Management System.
Copyright © 2021-2024

Home| Login| About Us| Contact Us|
[فارسی] [العربية] [fa] [ar]