Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biological activities of selected African species of the genus Ficus

محورهای موضوعی : Natural Products: Isolation and Characterization

Olaoluwa Olaoluwa ¹ (Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom |Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200284, Nigeria)
Olayombo Taiwo ² (Department of Chemistry, University of Ibadan, Ibadan 200284, Nigeria)
Lutfun Nahar ³ (Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom|Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic)
Satyajit Sarker ⁴ (Centre for Natural Products Discovery, School of Pharmacy & Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, United Kingdom)

تاریخ دریافت : 1400/06/10 تاریخ پذیرش : 1401/01/10 تاریخ انتشار : 1401/02/11

کلید واژه: Bioactive compounds, <i>Ficus</i>, Phytochemistry, Moraceae, Traditional uses,

چکیده مقاله :

The genus Ficus is one of the largest genera of the mulberry family (Moraceae) consisting of about 800 species of woody trees, shrubs, vines and climbers collectively known as ‘figs’ occurring in most tropical and subtropical forests worldwide. Fig plants are known for their ethnopharmacological, therapeutic and commercial importance and have been used in traditional medicines as a cure against malaria, diabetes, cancer, diarrhea, pyretic, ulcer, as well as gastrointestinal and urinary tract infections. Therefore, the present review aims to offer an updated compendium of documents sourced from recent publications regarding ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and biological activities of nine selected African Ficus species with the aim to open new prospects and strategies for further pharmacological research as a remedy for various ailments and for drug development.

منابع و مأخذ:

Abubakar, M.S., Musa, A.M., Ahmed, A., Hussaini, I.M., 2007. The perception and practice of traditional medicine in the treatment of cancers and inflammations by the Hausa and Fulani tribes of Northern Nigeria. J. Ethnopharmacol. 111(3), 625-629.
Abubakar, U.S., Danmalam, U.H., Musa, K.Y., Ahmed, A., Jajere, U.M., Abdullahi, S., 2017. Anticonvulsant activity of the methanol root bark extract of Ficus sycomorus Linn. (Moraceae). J. Pharm. Pharmacogn. Res. 5(1), 69-77.
Achigan-Dako, E., Pasquini, M., Assogba-Komlan, F., Sognigbe, N., Yedomonhan, H., Dansi, A. Ambrose-Oji, B., 2010. Traditional Vegetables in Benin. Institut National des Recherches Agricoles du Bénin, Imprimeries du CE-NAP, Cotonou, Bénin.
Adebayo, M.A., Enitan, S.S., Owonikoko, W.M., Igogo, E., Ajeigbe, K.O., 2017. Haematinic properties of methanolic stem bark and fruit extracts of Ficus sur in rats pre-exposed to phenylhydrazine-induced haemolytic anaemia. Afr. J. Biomed. Res. 20(1), 85-92.
Ahmad, S., Bhatti, F.R., Khaliq, F.H., Irshad, S., Madni, A., 2013. A review on the prosperous phytochemical and pharmacological effects of Ficus carica. Int. J. Bioassays, 2, 843-849.
Ahmadu A.A., Zezi A.U., Yaro, A.H., 2007. Anti-diarrheal activity of the leaf extracts of Daniella oliveri Hutch and Dalz (Fabaceae) and Ficus sycomorus Miq (Moraceae). Afr. J. Tradit. Complem. Altern. Med. 4(4), 524-528.
Ahmed, F., Ahmed, K.M., Abedin, M. and Karim, A., 2012. Traditional uses and pharmacological potential of Ficus exasperata Vahl. Syst. Rev. Pharm. 3(1), 15.
Aiyelero, O.M., Ibrahim, Z.G., Yaro, A.H., 2009. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of the methanol leaf extract of Ficus ingens (Moraceae) in rodents. Nigerian J. Pharm. Sci. 8, 79-86.
Alawa, J.P., Jokthan G.E., Akut, K., 2002. Ethnoveterinary medical practice for ruminants in the sub-humid zone of the northern Nigeria. Prev. Vet. Med. 54, 79-90.
Almahyl, H.A., Rahmani, M., SukarP, M.A., Ali, A.A., 2003. Investigation on the chemical constituents of the leaves of Ficus elastica Roxb. and their antimicrobial activity. Pertanika J. Sci. Technol. 11, 57-63.
Al-Musayeib, N.M., Mothana, R.A., Matheeussen, A., Cos, P., Maes, L., 2012. In vitro antiplasmodial, antileishmanial and antitrypanosomal activities of selected medicinal plants used in the traditional Arabian Peninsular region. BMC complem. Altern. Med. 12(1), 49.
Amol, P.P., Vikas, V.P., Vijay, R.P., Rajesh, Y.C., 2010. Anthelmintic and preliminary phytochemical screening of leaves of Ficus carica Linn against intestinal helminthiasis. Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm. 1(2), 601-605.
Amponsah, I.K, Fleischer, T.C, Annan, K., Dickson, R.A, Mensah, A.Y, Sarpong, F.M., 2013. Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of the stem bark extract and fractions of Ficus exasperata Vahl. (Moraceae). J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 2(3), 38-44.
Ango, P.Y., Kapche, D.W., Fotso, G.W., Fozing, C.D., Yeboah, E.M., Mapitse, R., Demirtas, I., Ngadjui, B.T., Yeboah, S.O., 2016. Thonningiiflavanonol A and thonningiiflavanonol B, two novel flavonoids, and other constituents of Ficus thonningii Blume (Moraceae). Z. Naturforsch. C. 71(3-4), 65-71.
Arbonier, M.A., 2004. Trees, Shrubs and Lianas of West African Dry Zones, second edition, Margraf Publishers, Netherlands 412.
Awad, N.E., Kassem, H.A., Hamed, M.A., Elbatanony, M.M., 2018. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective effects of the lipoidal matters of Ficus lutea leaves. J. Herbs Spices Med. Plants 24(4), 368-385.
Awolola, G.V., 2015. Phytochemical Analyses and Biological Activities of Four South African Ficus Species (Moraceae).  Ph.D. Thesis.
Awolola, G.V., Sofidiya, M.O., Baijnath, H., Noren, S.S., Koorbanally, N.A., 2019. The phytochemistry and gastroprotective activities of the leaves of Ficus glumosa. S. Afr. J. Bot. 126, 190-195.
Ayinde, B.A., Omogbai, E.K., Amaechina, F.C., 2007. Pharmacognosy and hypotensive evaluation of Ficus exasperata Vahl (Moraceae) leaf. Acta pol. Pharm. 64(6), 543-546.
Azuma, K., Ohyama, A., Ippoushi, K., Ichiyanagi, T., Takeuchi, A., Saito, T., Fukuoka, H., 2008. Structures and antioxidant activity of anthocyanins in many accessions of eggplant and its related species. J. Agric. Food Chem. 56, 10154-10159.
Badgujar, S.B., Patel, V.V., Bandivdekar, A.H., Mahajan, R.T., 2014. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus carica: A review. Pharm. Biol. 52(11), 1487-1503.
Bafor, E.E., Igbinuwen, O., 2009. Acute toxicity studies of the leaf extract of Ficus exasperata on haematological parameters, body weight and body temperature. J. Ethnopharmacol. 123(2), 302-307.
Bafor, E.E., Lim, C.V., Rowan, E.G., Edrada-Ebel, R., 2013. The leaves of Ficus exasperate Vahl (Moraceae) generates uterine active chemical constituents. J. Ethnopharmacol. 145, 803-812.
Bafor, E.E., Omogbai, E.K., Ozolua, R.I., 2011. Oxytocin inhibiting effect of the aqueous leaf extract of Ficus exasperata (Moraceae) on the isolated rat uterus. Acta Pol. Pharm. 68(4), 541-547.
Bafor, E.E., Omogbai, E.K.I., Ozolua, R.I., 2010. In vitro determination of the uterine stimulatory effect of the aqueous leaf extract of Ficus exasperata. J. Ethnopharmacol. 127(2), 502-507.
Bajaj, Y., 2010. Trees III.Berlin: Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH & Co., https://www.kalliergeia.com/en/rubber-plant-ficus-elastica-description-and-uses/ Accessed on 14/03/2022. 
Baur, J.A., Sinclair, D.A., 2006. Therapeutic potential of resveratrol: the in vivo evidence. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 5(6), 493-506.
Beentje, H.J., Mbago, F.M., 2007. A guide to the fig trees of Western Tanzania with special emphasis on Gombe and Mahale National Parks. J. East Afr. Nat. Hist. 96(1), 1-26.
Bello, O.M., Ojediran O.J. Dada, A.O., Olatunya A.M., Awakan, O.J., 2015. In-vivo toxicity studies and phytochemical screening of stem bark of Ficus sycomorus Linn (Moraceae) J. Environmental Sci. Toxicol. Food Tech. 9(3), 72-74.
Benjamin, F., 2016. “Ficus glumosa Delile (= F. sonderi Miq.)". PlantZAfrica.com. SANBI, Accessed 30 November 2021.
Berg, C.C., 1989. Classification and distribution of Ficus. Experientia 45(7), 605-611.
Berg, C.C., Corner E.J.H., 2005. Ficus―Moraceae. Flora Malesiana, Series I(17), 1-730.
Berg, C.C., Hijman, M.E.E., 1989. Flora of Tropical East Africa, Moraceae. pp. 1-95.
Berg, C.C., Wiebes, J.T. 1992. African fig trees and fig wasps. Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen. Amsterdam, pp. 1-298. 
Bhalerao, S.A., Verma, D.R., Teli, N.C., Didwana, V.S., Thakur, S.S., 2014. Ficus racemosa Linn.: A comprehensive review. J. Appl. Chem. 3(4), 1423-1431.
Bhat, M.Z.A., Ali, D.M., Mir, S.R., 2013. Anti-diabetic activity of Ficus carica L. stem barks and isolation of two new flavonol esters from the plant by using spectroscopical techniques. Asian J. Biomed. Pharm. Sci. 3(18), 22-28.
Bindu, C., Bhat, P.R., Prasad, G.K., Girish, B.C., 2016. Relative potency of antidiabetic effect of Costus speciosus (koen. Ex retz.) Smith plant extract in mouse fibroblast cell line. IJRG 4(3), 99-106.
Bouyahya, A., Bensaid, M., Bakri, Y., Dakka, N., 2016. Phytochemistry and ethnopharmacology of Ficus carica. Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev. 14, 1-12.
Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "fig". Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/plant/fig. Accessed 29 November 2021.
Bronikowska, J., Szliszka, E., Jaworska, D., Czuba, Z.P., Krol, W., 2012. The coumarin psoralidin enhances anticancer effect of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). Molecules 17(6), 6449-6464.
Burkill, H.M., 1985. Families S-Z Croptograms Addenda. The Useful Plants of West Africa, Royal Botical Garden 5.
Burkill, I.H., 1935. Some Changes in Plant-Names. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew), 1935(5), 316-319.
Burrows, J.E, Burrows, S., 2003. Figs of Southern & South-Central Africa. Umdaus Press, Hatfield, South Africa 379.
Canning, C., Sun, S., Ji, X., Gupta, S., Zhou, K., 2013. Antibacterial and cytotoxic activity of isoprenylated coumarin mammea A/AA isolated from Mammea africana. J. Ethnopharmacol. 147(1), 259-262.
Cathbert, M., 2019. Ficus sycomorus L. subsp. sycomorus. PlantZAfrica.com. SANBI. Retrieved 30 November 2021.
Chawla, A., Kaur, R., Sharma, A.K., 2012. Ficus carica Linn, a review on its pharamacognostic, phytochemical and pharmacologica aspects. Int. J. Pharm. Phytopharmacological Res. 1, 215-232.
Coates Palgrave, K., Drummond, R.B., Moll, E.J., 2002. Trees of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers. Cape Town, pp.1212.
Condit, I.J., 1947. The fig. Waltham: Chronica Botanica Co. 222.
Corner, E.J.H., 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya, Third Ed. Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 2, 861.
Cousins, D., Huffman, M.A., 2002. Medicinal properties in the diets of gorillas: An ethno-pharmacological evaluation. Afr. Study Monogr. 23, 65-89.
Cowan, M.M., 1999. Plant products as antimicrobial agents. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 12(4), 564-582. 
Cushnie, T.T., Lamb, A.J., 2005. Antimicrobial activity of flavonoids. Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents, 26(5), 343-356.
Dangarembizi, R., Erlwanger, K.H., Moyo, D., Chivandi, E., 2013. Phytochemistry, pharmacology and ethnomedicinal uses of Ficus thonningii (Blume Moraceae): a review. Afr. J. Tradit. Complem. Altern. Med. 10(2), 203-212.
Datiles, M.J., 2015. Ficus carica (common fig). Invasive Species Compendium. Wallingford, UK: CABI. DOI:10.1079/ISC.24078.20203483376.
Dongfack, M.D.J., Lallemand, M.C., Kuete, V., Mbazoa, C.D., Wansi, J.D., Trinh-van-Dufat, H., Michel, S., Wandji, J., 2012. A new sphingolipid and furanocoumarins with antimicrobial activity from Ficus exasperata. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 60(8), 1072-1075.
Donia, A.R.M., Soliman, G.A., Zaghloul, A.M., Alqasoumi, S.I., Awaad, A.S., Radwan, A.M., Basodan, O.A., 2013. Chemical constituents and protective effect of Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. on carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver damage in male Wistar albino rats. J. Saudi Chem. Soc. 17, 125-133.
Dueñas, M., Pérez-Alonso, J.J., Santos-Buelga, C., Escribano-Bailón, T., 2008. Anthocyanin composition in fig (Ficus carica L.). J. Food Compos. Anal. 21(2), 107-115.
Duke, J.A., Bugenschutz-godwin, M.J., Du collier, J., Duke, P.K., 2002. Handbook of Medicinal Herbs, Second edition, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, USA.
Egharevba, H.O., Carew, O., Kunle, O.F., 2015. Phytochemical and pharmacognostic analysis of Ficus thonningii Blume leaves for monograph development. Int. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 4(2), 94-100.
El-Sayed, M.M., Mahmoud, M.A.A., El-Nahas, H.A.K., El-Toumy, S.A.H., El-Wakil, E.A., Ghareeb, M.A., 2010. Bio-guided isolation and structure elucidation of antioxidant compounds from the leaves of Ficus sycomorus. Pharmacologyonline 3(3), 317-332.
Fahrioğlu, U., Dodurga, Y., Elmas, L., Seçme, M., 2016. Ferulic acid decreases cell viability and colony formation while inhibiting migration of MIA PaCa-2 human pancreatic cancer cells in vitro. Gene 576(1), 476-482.
Faleyimu, O.I., Akinyemi, O., Idris, Y.M., 2010. Survey of forest plants used in traditional treatment of typhoid fever in Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna State, Nigeria. IJBHS 6(1), 75-81.
Famobuwa, O.E., Agbowuro, A.A., Adekunbi, E.A., Akinwale, M.A., 2019. Isolation andcharacterization of bergapten from the root bark of Ficus exasperate (Vahl). Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev. 25, 1-5.
Feleke, S., Brehane, A., 2005. Triterpene compounds from the latex of Ficus sur I. B. Chem. Soc. Ethiopia 19(2), 307-310.
Feng, C., Ma, Y., 2010. Isolation and anti-phytopathogenic activity of secondary metabolites from Alternaria sp. FL25, an endophytic fungus in Ficus carica. Chin. J. Appl. Environ. Biol. 16, 76-78.
Ferguson, L.., Michailides, T.J. and Shorey, H.H., 1990. The California fig industry. Hortic Rev, 12, 409-490.
Fongang, Y.S.F., Bankeu, J.J.K., Ali, M.S., Awantu, A.F., Zeeshan, A., Assob, C.N., Mehreen, L., Lenta, B.N., Ngouela, S.A., Tsamo, E., 2015. Flavonoids and other bioactive constituents from Ficus thonningii Blume (Moraceae). Phytochem. Lett. 11, 139-145.
Frezza, C., Venditti, A., De Vita, D., Toniolo, C., Franceschin, M., Ventrone, A., Tomassini, L., Foddai, S., Guiso, M., Nicoletti, M., Bianco, A., 2020. Phytochemistry, chemotaxonomy, and biological activities of the Araucariaceae family-A review. Plants 9(7), 888.
Ghosh, S., 2020. Triterpenoids: Structural diversity, biosynthetic pathway, and bioactivity. Stud. Nat. Prod. Chem. 67, 411-461.
Gilani, A.H., Mehmood, M.H., Janbaz, K.H., Khan, A.U., Saeed, S.A., 2008. Ethnopharmacological studies on anti- spasmodic and antiplatelet activities of Ficus carica. J. Ethnopharmacol. 119, 1-5.
Ginting, C.N., Lister, I.N.E., Girsang, E., Riastawati, D., Kusuma, H.S.W., Widowati, W., 2020. Antioxidant activities of Ficus elastica leaves ethanol extract and its compounds. Mol. Cell. Biomed. Sci. 4(1), 27-33.
Gurib-Fakim, A., 2006. Medicinal plants: traditions of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Mol. Asp. Med. 27(1), 1-93.
Hamidu Usman, V.I., Suyi, H.E., Umar, H.A., 2017. Comparative phytochemistry and in vitro antimicrobial effectiveness of the leaf extracts of Clerodendrum capitatum (Verbenaceae) and Ficus glumosa (Moraceae). J. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 6(6), 945-948.
Hamilton, P., 1991. The ABC’s of Indoor Ficus Trees. Pacific Grove, CA: Park Place Publications.
Hankey, A., 2003. "Ficus sur". Plants of SA. PlantZAfrica.com. Retrieved 29 November 2021.
Hassan, S.W., Lawal, M., Muhammad, B.Y., Umar, R.A., Bilbis, L.S., Saidu, Y., 2007. Effects of anthraquinone glycosides and aqueous ethanol extracts of Ficus sycomorus L.(Moraceae) on rat liver and kidney functions.
Hsu, W.C., Chang, S.P., Lin, L.C., Li, C.L., Richardson, C.D., Lin, C.C., Lin, L.T., 2015. Limonium sinense and gallic acid suppress hepatitis C virus infection by blocking early viral entry. Antiviral Res. 118, 139-147.
Ibrahim, G., Abdulmumin, S., Musa, K.Y., Yaro, A.H., 2008. Anticonvulsant activities of crude flavonoid fraction of the stem bark of Ficus sycomorus (Moraceae). J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 3(5), 351-356.
Igbokwe, N.A., Igbokwe, I.O., Sandabe, U.K., 2010. Effect of prolonged oral administration of aqueous Ficus sycomorus stem-bark extract on testicular size of growing albino rat. Int. J. Morphol. 28(4), 1315-1322.
Ishola, I.O., Olayemi, S.O., Yemitan, O.K., Ekpemandudiri, N.K., 2013. Mechanisms of anticonvulsant and sedative actions of the ethanolic stem-bark extracts of Ficus sur Forssk (Moraceae) in rodents. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 16(21), 1287-1294.
Jan-Hakon, B., 2004. "Ficus lutea Vahl". PlantZAfrica.com. SANBI. Accessed on 29 /11/2021.
Jasen, P.C.M., 2005. Ficus glumosa Delile. In: Jansen PCM, Cardon, D (Eds.), PROTA 3: Dyes and tannins/Colorants et tanins. PROTA, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Jordaan, M., 2005. "Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq". PlantZAfrica.com. SANBI. Accessed on 29/11/2021
Joseph, B., Raj, S.J., 2011. Pharmacognostic and phytochemical properties of Ficus carica Linn-An overview. Int. J. Pharmtech. Res. 3(1), 8-12.
Kahkonen, P. M., Heinonen, M., 2003. Antioxidant activity of antho-cyanins and their aglycons. J. Agric. Food Chem. 51, 628-633.
Kang, M.S., Oh, J.S., Kang, I.C., Hong, S.J., Choi, C.H., 2008. Inhibitory effect of methyl gallate and gallic acid on oral bacteria. J. Microbiol. 46(6), 744-750.
Karak, P., 2019. Biological activities of flavonoids: An overview. Int. J. Pharm. Sci. Res. 10(4), 1567-1574.
Kiem, P.V., Minh, C.V., Nhiem, N.X., Quang, T.H., Anh, H.T., Cuong, N.X., Kim, Y.H., Jang, H.D., 2012. Chemical constituents of the Ficus elastica leaves and their antioxidant activities. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 33(10), 3461-3464.
Kim, J., 2012. Chemical constituents of the Ficus elastica leaves and their antioxidant activities. Bull. Korean Chem. Soc. 33(10), 3461.
Krief, S., Hladik, C.M., Haxaire, C., 2005. Ethnomedicinal and bioactive properties of plants ingested by wild chimpanzees in Uganda. J. Ethnopharmacol. 101(1-3), 1-15.
Kunkel, G., 1978. Descriptive Part. In: Flowering Trees in Subtropical Gardens. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-9989-3_6.
Kunle, O., Shittu, A., Nasipuri, R., Kunle, O., Wambebe, C., Akah, P., 1999. Gastrointestinal activity of Ficus sur. Fitoterapia 70(6), 542-547.
Lansky, E.P., Paavilainen, H.M., 2011. Traditional Herbal Medicines for Modern Times: Figs, The Genus Ficus. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group LLC. USA, pp. 13-50.
Liu, F.F., Yang, Z.S., Zheng, X., Luo, S.L., Zhang, K.Q., Li, G.H., 2011. Nematicidal coumarin from Ficus carica L. J. Asia-Pac. Entomol. 14, 79-81.
Madikizela, B., Ndhlala, A.R., Finnie, J.F., Van Staden, J., 2014. Antimycobacterial, anti-inflammatory and genotoxicity evaluation of plants used for the treatment of tuberculosis and related symptoms in South Africa. J. Ethnopharmacol. 153, 386-391.
Madubunyi, I.I., Onoja, S.O., Asuzu, I.U., 2012. In vitro antioxidant and in vivoantidiabetic potential of the methanol extract of Ficus glumosa Del (Moraceae) stem bark in alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Comp. Clin. Path. 21, 389-394.
Mahomoodally, M. F., 2013. Traditional medicines in Africa: An appraisal of ten potent African medicinal plants. Special Issue on Recent Advances towards Validating Efficacy and Safety of African Traditional Medicines. Evid.-based Complement. Alternative Med. 2013, 1-14. 
Mali, R.G., Mehta, A.A., 2007. A review on anthemintic plants. Nat. Prod. Rad. 7, 466-475.
Mawa, S., Husain, K., Jantan, I., 2013. Ficus carica L. (Moraceae): phytochemistry, traditional uses and biological activities. Evid. Based Complementary Altern Med. 1-8.
Mbakwem-Aniebo, C., Onianwa, O., Okonko, I.O., 2012. Effects of Ficus exasperata Vahl on commercial dermatophytes and causative agent of pityriasis versicolor in Rivers State, Nigeria. Am. J. Dermatol. Venereol. 1(1), 1-5.
Mbosso, T.J.E., Assob, N.J.C., Meyer, F., Lenta, N.B., Ngouela, S., Lallemand, B., Mathieu, V., Van Antwerpen, P., Njunda, A.L., Adiogo, D., Tsamo, E., Looze, Y., Kiss, R., Wintjens, R., 2012. Ceramide, cerebroside and triterpenoid saponin from the bark of aerial roots of Ficus elastica (Moraceae). Phytochemistry 83, 95-103.
Mbosso, T.J.E., Noundou, X.S., Nguemfo, E.L., Meyer, F., Wintjens, R., Isaacs, M., Mpondo, M.E.A., Hoppe, H.C., Krause, M.R.W., Azebaze, A.G.B., 2017. Biological activities of plant extracts from Ficus elastica and Selaginella vogelli: an antimalarial, antitrypanosomal and cytotoxity evaluation. Saudi J. Biol. Sci. 25(1), 117-122.
Mbosso, T.J.E., Siwe Noundou, X., Nguemfo, E.L., Meyer, F., Djoukoue, A., Van Antwerpen, P., Ngouela, S., Tsamo, E., Mpondo, M.E.A., Vardamides, J.C., Azebaze, A.G.B., Wintjens, R., 2016. Identification of compounds with anti-proliferative activity from the Wood of Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. aerial roots. Fitoterapia 112, 65-67.
Mennen, L.I., Walker, R., Bennetau-Pelissero, C., Scalbert, A., 2005. Risks and safety of polyphenol consumption. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 81(1), 326S-329S.
Mishra, A.K., Mishra, A., Kehri, H.K., Sharma, B., Pandey, A.K., 2009. Inhibitory activity of Indian spice plant Cinnamomum zeylanicum extracts against Alternaria solani and Curvularia lunata, the pathogenic dematiaceous moulds. Ann. Clin. Microbiol. Antimicrob. 8(1), 1-7.
Mogg, A.O.D., 1975. Important Plants of Sterkfontein. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand. pp. 78-79. ISBN 0-85494-426-5.
Mohammadhosseini, M., Frezza, C., Venditti, A., Akbarzadeh, A., 2019. Ethnobotany and phytochemistry of the genus Eremostachys Bunge. Curr. Org. Chem., 23, 1828-1842. 
Muktar, B., Bello, I.A., Sallau, M.S., 2018. Isolation, characterization and antimicrobial study of lupeol acetate from the root bark of Fig-Mulberry Sycamore (Ficus sycomorus LINN). JASEM 22(7), 1129-1133.
Nagendra, H. Gopal, D., 2010. Street trees in Bangalore: Density, diversity, composition and distribution. Urban For Urban Green, 9(2), 129-137.
Nana, F., Sandjo, L.P., Keumedjio, F., Ambassa, P., Malik, R., Kuete, V., Rincheval, V., Choudhary, M.I., Ngadjui, B.T., 2012. Ceramides and cytotoxic constituents from Ficus glumosa Del. (Moraceae). J. Brazil. Chem. Soc. 23(3), 482-487.
Narasimhan, A., Chinnaiyan, M., Karundevi, B., 2015. Ferulic acid regulates hepatic GLUT2 gene expression in high fat and fructose-induced type-2 diabetic adult male rat. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 761, 391-397.
Nasir, E., Ali, S.I., 1972-1994. Flora of Pakistan National Herbarium, NARC. Islamabad. Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Karachi, Karachi. (Fascicles).
Nasr, T., Bondock, S., Youns, M., 2014. Anticancer activity of new coumarin substituted hydrazide-hydrazone derivatives. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 76, 539-548.
Negash, L., 2021. A Selection of African Native Trees: Biology, Uses, Propagation and Restoration Techniques. pp. 621.
Neuwinger, H.D., 2000. African Traditional Medicine: a Dictionary of Plant Use and Applications. With Supplement: Search System For Diseases. Medpharm.
Njoronge, G.N, Kibunga, J.W., 2007. Herbal medicine acceptance, sources and utilisation for diarrhoea management in a cosmopolitan urban area (Thika, Kenya). Afr. J. Ecol. 45, 65-70. 
Ntchapda, F., Abakar, D., Kom, B., Nana, P., Bonabe, C., Kakesse, M., Talla, E., Dimo, T., 2014. Diuretic activity of the aqueous extract leaves of Ficus glumosa Del. (Moraceae) in rats. Sci. World J. 2014, 1-11.
Odo, G. E., Agwu, J.E., Newze, N., Nwadinigwa, A., Onyeke, C.C., Nzekwe, U., Ajuziogu, G. C., Osayi, E. Ikegbunam, C., 2016. Toxicity and effects of fig (Ficus carica) leaf aqueous extract on haematology and some biochemical indices of wistar albino rats (Rattus norvegicus). J. Med. Plant Res. 10(22), 298-305. 
Odunbaku, O.A., Ilusanya, O.A., Akasoro, K.S., 2008. Antibacterial activity of ethanolic leaf extract of Ficus exasperata on Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus albus. Sci. Res. Essay 3(11), 562-564.
Olaokun, O.O., McGaw, L.J., Awouafack, M.D., Eloff J.N., Naidoo V., 2014. The potential role of GLUT4 transporters and insulin receptors in the hypoglycaemic activity of Ficus lutea acetone leaf extract. BMC Complem. Altern. Med. 14(1), 269. 
Olaokun, O.O., McGaw, L.J., Eloff, J.N., Naidoo, V., 2013. Evaluation of the inhibition of carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes, antioxidant activity and polyphenolic content of extracts of ten African Ficus species (Moraceae) used traditionally to treat diabetes. BMC Complem. Altern. Med. 13(1), 94.
Olayemi, I.K., Oyiza, M.S., Ukubuiwe, A.C., Ande, A.T., Kamoru, A.A. and Shittu, K.O., 2017. Larvicidal activities of leaf extracts of Adansonia digitata L. (Malvales: Malvaceae) and Ficus sur Forssk (Rosales: Moraceae) against Culex quinquefasciatus Mosquito (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Mosq. Res. 7(15), 115-124.
Oliveira, A.P., Valentão, P., Pereira, J.A., Silva, B.M., Tavares, F., Andrade, P.B., 2009. Ficus carica L.: Metabolic and biological screening. Food Chem. Toxicol. 47(11), 2841-2846.
Onoja, S.O., Omeh, Y.N., Ezeja, M.I., Odo, E.C., Elendu, D.S., 2014. Subacute antidiabetic and in vivo antioxidant effects of methanolic extract of Ficus glumosa stem bark on alloxan-induced hyperglycaemic rats. Comp. Clin. Path. 23(6), 1689-1695.
Orwa, C., Mutua, A., Kindt, R., Jamnadass, R., Anthony, S., 2009. Agroforestree Database: A tree reference and selection guide version 4.0. (http://www.worldagrofrestry.org/sites/treedbs/reedatabases.asp).
Palgrave, K.C., 1984. Trees of Southern Africa. Cape Town: Struik. Pp. 105. ISBN 0-86977-081-0.
Palmer, E., 1977. A Field Guide to the Trees of Southern Africa. London, Johannesburg: Collins, pp. 90-91. ISBN 0-620-05468-9.
Pan, M.H., Lai, C.S., Ho, C.T., 2010. Anti-inflammatory activity of natural dietary flavonoids. Food Funct. 1(1), 15-31.
Patil V.V., Patil V. R., 2011. Ficus benghalensis Linn, an overview. Int. J. Pharma Bio. Sci. 6(2), 1-11.
Penelope, O., 1997. Great Natural Remedies, Kyle CathicLimited, New York, NY, USA.
Pereira, S.R., Pereira, R., Figueiredo, I., Freitas, V., Dinis, T.C., Almeida, L.M., 2017. Comparison of anti-inflammatory activities of an anthocyanin-rich fraction from Portuguese blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) and 5-aminosalicylic acid in a TNBS-induced colitis rat model. PLoS One 12, e0174116.
Phan, V.K., Chau, V.M., Nguyen, X.N., Bui, H.T., Tran, H.Q., Hoang, L.T.A., Nguyen, X.C., Truong, N.H., Seung, H.K., Jin, K.K., Hae-Dong, J., Young, H.K., 2012. Chemical constituents of the Ficus elastic leaves and their antioxidant activities. B. Korean Chem. Soc. 33, 3461-3464.
Poumale, H.M., Djoumessi, A.V., Ngameni, B., Sandjo, L.P., Hgadjui, B.T., Shiono, Y., 2011. A new ceramide isolated from Ficus lutea Vahl (Moraceae). Acta Chim. Slov. 58(1), 81-86.
Poumale, H.M.P., 2012. Lutamide, a new ceramide isolated from the leaves of Ficus lutea. A search for antibacterial agents, 41.
Prelude Medicinal Plants Database, 2011. http://www.metafro.be/prelude/view_plant?pi=06040, Accessed on 14/03/2022.
Ramchoun, M., Harnafi, H., Alem, C., Benlys, M., Elrhaffari, L., Amrani, S., 2009. Study on antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects of polyphenol-rich extract from Thymus vulgaris and Lavendula multifida. J. Pharm. Pharmacogn. Res. 1, 106-112. 
Rice-Evans, C.A., Miller, N.J., Paganga, G., 1996. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radic. Biol.Med. 20, 933-956.
Richter, G., Schwarz, H.P., Dorner, F., Peter, L., 2002. Activation and inactivation of human factor X by proteases derived from Ficus carica Linn. Br. J. Haematol. 119, 1042-1051.
Rubnov, S., Kashman, Y., Rabinowitz, R., Schlesinger, M., Mechoulam, R., 2001. Suppressors of cancer cell proliferation from fig (Ficus carica) resin: isolation and structure elucidation. J. Nat. Prod. 64, 993-996.
Sabiu, S., Garuba, T., Sunmonu, T., Ajani, E., Sulyman, A., Nurain, I., Balogun, A., 2015. Indomethacin-induced gastric ulceration in rats: protective roles of Spondias mombin and Ficus exasperata. Toxicol. Rep. 2, 261-267.
Saeed, M.A., Sabir, A.W., 2002. Irritant potential of triterpenoids from Ficus carica leaves. Fitoterapia 73(5), 417-420.
Sakpa, C.L., Wilson, O.O., 2019. Anti-spermatogenic effects of Ficus sycomorus aqueous leaf extract on testes and epididymis of adult male Wistar Rats. Afr. Sci. 20 (1) 2019.
Saloufou, K.I., Boyode, P., Simalou, O., Eloh, K., Idoh, K., Melila, M., Toundou, O., Kpegba, K., Agbonon, A., 2018. Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of different parts of Ficus sur. J. Herbmed Pharmacol. 7(3), 185-192.
Sandabe, U.K., Kwari, H.D., 2000. Some aspects of ethno-veterinary medicine among Kanuri and Bura of Borno state. J. Borno Museum Soc. 44-45.
Sandabe, U.K., Onyeyili, P.A., Chibuzo, G.A., 2003. Sedative and anticonvulsant effects of aqueous extract of Ficus sycomorus L. (Moraceae) stembark in rats. Vet. Arch. 73(2), 103-110.
Seifel-Din, S.H., El-Lakkany, N.M., Mohamed, M.A., Hamed, M.M., Sterner, O., Botros, S.S., 2014. Potential effect of the medicinal plants Calotropis procera. Ficus elastica and Zingiber officinale against Schistosoma mansoni in mice. Pharm. Biol. 52(2), 144-150.
Shah, S.A., Yoon, G.H., Kim, M.O., 2015. Protection of the developing brain with anthocyanins against ethanol-induced oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. Mol. Neurobiol. 51, 1278-1291.
Shahidi, F., Yeo, J., 2018. Bioactivities of phenolics by focusing on suppression of chronic diseases: a review. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 19(6), 1573.
Shukranul M., Khairana, H., Ibrahim, J., 2013. Ficus carica L. (Moraceae): Phytochemistry, traditional uses and biological activities. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med.  2013, 974256.
Simo, C.C., Kouam, S.F., Poumale, H.M., Simo, I.K., Ngadjui, B.T., Green, I.R., Krohn, K., 2008. Benjaminamide: A new ceramide and other compounds from the twigs of Ficus benjamina (Moraceae). Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 36(3), 238.
Singh, D., Singh, B., Goel, R.K., 2011. Traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of Ficus religiosa: A review. J. Ethnopharmacol. 134(3), 565-583.
Solomon, A., Golubowicz, S., Yablowicz, Z., Grossman, S., Bergman, M., Gottlieb, H.E., Altman, A., Kerem, Z., Flaishman, M.A., 2006. Antioxidant activities and anthocyanin content of fresh fruits of common fig (Ficus carica L.). J. Agric. Food Chem. 54(20), 7717-7723.
Somashekhar, M.N.N., Mahesh, A.R., 2013. Botanical study of four Ficus species of family Moraceae: a review. Int. J. Univ. Pharm. Bio. Sci. 2, 558-570.
Taiwo, B.J., Igbeneghu, O.A., 2014. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of flavonoid glycosides from Ficus exasperata vahl-holl (moraceae) leaves. Afr. J. Tradit. Complem. Altern. Med. 11(3), 97-101.
Takikawa, M., Inoue, S., Horio, F., Tsuda, T., 2010. Dietary anthocyanin-rich bilberry extract ameliorates hyperglycemia and insulin sensitivity via activation of AMP-activated protein kinase in diabetic mice. J. Nutr. 140, 527-533.
Teinkela, J.M., Noundou, X.S., Fannang, S., Meyer, F., Vardamides, J.C., Mpondo, E.M., Krause, R.W.M., Azebaze, A.G.B., Nguedia, J.C.A., 2017. In vitro antimicrobial activity of the methanol extract and compounds from the wood of Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. aerial roots. S. Afr. J. Bot. 111, 302-306.
Teklehaymanot, T., Gidday, M., 2007. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, North Western Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 3(1), 12.
Van Noort, S., Rasplus, J.Y., 2004-2012. Figweb. Iziko Museums, South Africa. http://www.figweb.org/Figs_and_fig_wasps/index.htm.
Veluri, R., Singh, R.P., Liu, Z., Thompson, J.A., Agarwal, R., Agarwal, C., 2006. Fractionation of grape seed extract and identification of gallic acid as one of the major active constituents causing growth inhibition and apoptotic death of DU145 human prostate carcinoma cells. Carcinogenesis 27(7), 1445-1453.
Von Breitenbach, F., 1985. Southern Cape Tree Guide. Pretoria: Dept. of Environment Affairs: Forestry. ISBN 0-621-09741-1.
Von Maydell, H., 1990. Butyrospermum parkii (G. Don) Kotschy 202-207. Trees and Shrubs of the Sahel: Their Characteristics and Uses. English Text Revised J. Brase. Eschborn: Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ).
Wang, Z., Pang, W., He, C., Li, Y., Jiang, Y., Guo, C., 2017. Blueberry anthocyanin-enriched extracts attenuate fine particulate matter (PM2.5)-induced cardiovascular dysfunction. J. Agric. Food Chem. 65, 87-94.
Wehrmüller, K., 2007. Occurrence and biological properties of sphingolipids-A review. Curr. Nutr. Food Sci. 3, 161-173.
Weli, A.M., Al-Blushi, A.A.M. and Hossain, M.A., 2015. Evaluation of antioxidant and antimicrobial potential of different leaves crude extracts of Omani Ficus carica against food borne pathogenic bacteria. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Dis. 5(1), 13-16.
Witaicenis, A., Seito, L.N., da Silveira Chagas, A., de Almeida Junior, L.D., Luchini, A.C., Rodrigues-Orsi, P., Cestari, S.H. and Di Stasi, L.C., 2014. Antioxidant and intestinal anti-inflammatory effects of plant-derived coumarin derivatives. Phytomedicine, 21(3), 240-246.
Woode, E., Poku, R.A., Abotsi, W.K., 2011. Anticonvulsant effects of leaf extract of Ficus exasperata Vahl (Moraceae) in mice. Int. J. Pharmacol. 7, 405-409.
Woodland, D.W., 1997. Contemporary Plant Systematics, second edition. Andrews University Press, Berrien Springs, MI 610.
Yakubu, T.M., Salau, A.K., Oloyede, O.B., Akanji, M.A., 2014. Effect of aqueous leaf extract of Ficus exasperata in alloxan-induced diabetic Wistar rats. Cameroon J. Exp. Biol. 10(1), 35-43.
Yeh, R.D., Chen, J.C., Lai, T.Y., Yang, J.S., Yu, C.S., Chiang, J.H., Lu, C.C., Yang, S.T., Yu, C.C., Chang, S.J., Lin, H.Y., 2011. Gallic acid induces G0/G1 phase arrest and apoptosis in human leukemia HL-60 cells through inhibiting cyclin D and E, and activating mitochondria-dependent pathway. Anticancer Res. 31(9), 2821-2832.