Construction, Validity and Reliability of Academic Self-defeating Behaviour Questionnaire in Adolescents

Subject Areas : Tectonostratigraphy

Bahareh Ajdarbin ¹ , Khadijeh Abolmaali alhoseeni ² , Reza Ghorban Jahromi ³ , Fariborz Doortaj ⁴

1 - Ph.D. Student of Department of Educational Psychology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
2 - Associate professor, Department of Psychology, Tehran North Branch, Islamic Azad University,Tehran, Iran.
3 - Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
4 - Professor, Department of Educational Psychology, AllamehTabatabai University, Tehran, Iran.

Received: 2021-08-20 Accepted : 2022-07-13 Published : 2022-04-21

Keywords: Factor Analysis, validity, Reliability, Academic Self-defeating Behaviour,

Abstract :

Introduction and Objectives: Conscious and deliberate behaviours that despite of positive consequences finally led to failure are called self-defeating behaviours. The major aim of the current research was “Construction, Reliability and Validity of Academic Self-defeating Behaviour Questionnaire in Adolescents”.
Materials and Methods: In this descriptive survey study the statistical population included the secondary school students in Tehran in the academic year 2020-2021. The research sample included a total of 1265 person (548 boys and 717 girls) that selected by cluster random sampling methods. To develop the questionnaire, we reviewed previous studies of Academic Self-defeating Behaviour, Cunningham Self-defeating Behavior Questionnaire (54) and investigating components based on theoretical literature.To evaluate the construct validity, data were divided into two groups (633 and 632 people). The first half data were used for exploratory factor analysis and the second half data were used for confirmatory factor analysis.
Results: The results of exploratory factor analysis showed that 35 items have high loading on 3 factors, included "procrastination/self-handicapping, ""inability to goal orientation/performance, " and "inaccurate self-assessment, " which together explained 0/38 of the total variance of questionnaire. After combining the items, confirmatory factor analysis showed that the model has a good fit with the data.Too the internal consistency of the total questionnaire was obtained 0.85.
Discussion and Conclusion:The present questionnaire was developed to investigate academic self-defeating behaviour and our findings revealed that the mentioned questionnaire met desirable validity and reliability, so that it can be used along with other diagnostic tools to assess academic self-defeating behaviour.

References:

1. Day, V., Mensink, D., & O'Sullivan, M. (2000). Patterns of Academic Procrastination. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 30(2): 120-134.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2000.10850090

2. Baumeister, R.F. (1997). Esteem threat, self-regulatory breakdown, and emotional distress as factors in self-defeating behavior. Review of General Psychology, 1: 145–174.

https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.145

3. Twenge, J.M., Catanese, K.R., & Baumeister, R.F. (2002). Social exclusion causes self-defeating behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83: 606–615.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17201542/

4. Briones, E., Tabernero, C., & Arenas, A. (2007). Effects of Disposition and Self-Regulation on Self-Defeating Behavior. The Journal of Social Psychology, 147(6): 657-680.

https://www.academia.edu/14254323/Effects_of_Disposition_and_Self_Regulation_on_Self_Defeating_Behavior

5. Baumeister, R.F., & Bushman, B.J. (2020). Social psychology and human nature. Cengage Learning.

https://www.amazon.com /Social-Psychology-Human-Nature-Comprehensive/dp/1305497910

6. Renn, R.W., Allen, D.G., Fedor, D.B., & Davis, W.D. (2005). The Roles of Personality and Self-Defeating Behaviors in Self-Management Failure. Journal of Management, 31(5):659-679.

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0149206305279053

7. Carver, C.S., & Scheier, M.F. (2000). Autonomy and Self-Regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4): 284–291.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/1449622

8. Senecal, C., Julien, E., &Guey, F. (2003). Role conflict and academic procrastination: A self – determination perspective. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33: 135­145.

https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.144

9. Sirois, F.M., & Pychyl, T.A. (2016). Procrastination. In: Friedman H.S., editor. Encyclopedia of mental health (2nd ed., pp 330–338) Academic press.

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/spc3.12011

10.Ko, C.Y.A., & Chang, Y. (2019). Investigating the relationships among resilience, social anxiety, and procrastination in a sample of college students. Psychological Reports, 122(1), 231-245.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118755111

11. Hashemi, L., &Latifian, M. (2013). Perfectionism and academic procrastination: Investigating the mediating role of exam anxiety. Personality and individual differences. 2(3): 73-99.

https://www.sid.ir/En/Journal/ViewPaper.aspx?ID=417291

12. Ferrari, J.R. (2001). Procrastination as self‐regulation failure of performance: effects of cognitive load, self‐awareness, and time limits on 'working best under pressure'. European Journal of Personality, 15(5): 391-406. 

https://doi.org/10.1002/per.413

13. Ferrari, J.R., & Scher, S.J. (2000). Toward an understanding of academic and nonacademic tasks procrastinated by students: The use of daily logs. Psychology in the Schools, 37(4): 359-366.

https://doi.org/10.1002/per.413

14. Milgram, N., Mey–Tal, G., & Levinson, Y. (1998). Procrastination generalized or specific, in college students and their parents. Personality and Individual Differences, 25: 297-316.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00044-0

15. Ocansey, G., Addo, C., Onyeaka, H.K., Andoh-Arthur, J., & Oppong, A.K. (2020). The influence of personality types on academic procrastination among undergraduate students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology, 1-8.

https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2020.1841051

16. Beutel, M.E., Klein, E.M., Aufenanger, S., Brähler, E., Dreier, M., Müller, K.W.,& Wölfling, K. (2016). Procrastination, distress and life satisfaction across the age range–a German representative community study”. PloS one, 11(2): 54-59.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0148054

17. Steel, P.Y., &Klingsieck, K. (2015). Procrastination. In J. D. Wright (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences, 2nd Edition (pp. 73-78). Oxford: Elsevier.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Piers-Steel/publication/317823704_Procrastination/links/59b6d5daa6fdcc7415be67d3/Procrastination.pdf

18. Rozental, A., Forsström, D., Nilsson, S., Rizzo, A., &Carlbring, P. (2014). Group versus Internet- based cognitive-behavioral therapy for procrastination: Study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Internet Interventions, 1(2): 84-89.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.invent.2014.05.005

19. Zhou, M. (2018). Gender differences in procrastination: the role of personality traits. Current Psychology, 5(3): 1-9.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324595885_Gender_differences_in_procrastination_The_role_of_personality_traits

20. Islas, M.S. (2018). An exploration of the triadic model of procrastination: arousal, avoidant, and decisional procrastination in adults. Doctoral dissertation. California State University.

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.1078.80&rep=rep1&type=pdf

21. Janssen, J. (2015). Academic procrastination: Prévalence among high school and undergraduate students and relationship to academic achievement. Master’s Dissertation, Georgia State University.

https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/epse_diss/103/

22. Rezaei, B., Yarmohammadian, M.H., &MahmoodzadehArdakani, H. (2016). Assessing the prevalence of organizational procrastination and the associated factors among nursing and midwifery staff. Nursing management, 1(5): 17-28.

http://ijnv.ir/article-1-431-en.html

23. Nouri Imam zadeh, T., & Nilforoshan, P. (2016). Students' academic procrastination: the role of coping styles and the dual dimensions of perfectionism. New educational approaches, 11 (1): 21-40.

https://journals.ui.ac.ir/article_21056_0.html?lang=en

24. Vohs, K.D., &Baumeister, R.F. (2004). Understanding self-regulation: An introduction. In R. F. Baumeister& K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of selfregulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp.1-12). New York: Guilford Press.

https://books.google.com/books?id=Q24sDwAAQBAJ

25. Baumeister, R.F., & Scher, S.J. (1988). Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: Review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies. Psychological Bulletin, 104 (1): 3-22.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3043527/

26. Motie, H., Heidari, M.,& Sadeghi, M. (2013). Development of a Self –Regulation Package for Academic Procrastination and Evaluation of Its Effectiveness. The European Journal of Social &Behavioural Sciences, 2013; 4: 889-896.

https://www.europeanpublisher.com/data/articles/125/5617/article_125_5617_pdf_100.pdf

27.Rabin, L.A., Fogel, J., & Nutter-Upham, K.E. (2011). Academic procrastination in college students: The role of self-reported executive function. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 33(3), 344-357.

https://doi.org/10.1080/13803395.2010.518597

28. Sudler, E.L. (2014). Academic procrastination as mediated by executive functioning, perfectionism, and frustration intolerance in college students. Master’s Dissertation. St. John's University.

http://www.proquest.com/enUS/products/dissertati ns/individuals.shtml

29. Wypych, M.W., Matuszewski, J., & Dragan, W.Ł. (2018). Roles of impulsivity, motivation, and emotion regulation in procrastination–Path analysis and comparison between students and non-students. Frontiers in psychology, 9: 891- .899.

https://europepmc.org/article/PMC/5996249

30. Haghbin, M. (2015). Conceptualization and operationalization of delay: Development and validation of the multifaceted measure of academic procrastination and the delay questionnaire. Doctoral dissertation, Carleton University.

https://curve.carleton.ca/dc303d5d-aaae-4873bd46-4d6f1aff24e6

31. Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological bulletin, 133 (1): 65-94.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17201571/

32. Shaykh al-Islami, A. (2017). The effectiveness of teaching cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies on academic procrastination of students with low academic achievement. School Psychology, 6(3): 65-84.

http://jsp.uma.ac.ir/article_585.html

33. Leyland, A., Rowse, G., & Emerson, L.M. (2019). Experimental effects of mindfulness inductions on self-regulation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Emotion, 19(1): 108-122.

https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000425

34. Davisson, E.K., & Hoyle, R.H. (2017). Perspective on Self‐Regulation. In T. Egner (Ed), The Wiley handbook of cognitive control (p.440-455). Elsevier Ltd.

file:///C:/Users/m-pc/AppData/Local/Temp/4026713991407.pdf

35. Samadi, S., Mousavi, S.A., Akbari, B.,& Rezaei, S. (2020). The effectiveness of self-efficacy training on self-regulation and health behaviors of procrastinating students. Bi-Quarterly Journal of Cognitive Strategies in Learning, 8(14): 111-137.

https://asj.basu.ac.ir/article_3360.html?lang=en

36. Rashidi, A., Zandi, F., Yarahmadi, Y., & Akbari, M. (2021). The effectiveness of educational program based on academic motivation on self-defeating academic behaviors of second year high school students. Journal of Applied Psychology, 15(1): 23-29.

https://apsy.sbu.ac.ir/article/view/article_101055.html

37. Filippello, P., Buzzai, C., Sorrenti, L., Costa, S., Abramo, A., & Wang, K.T. (2019). Italian version of the Family Almost Perfect Inventory: psychometric characteristics and relationships with academic engagement, self-esteem, and personal perfectionism. Appl. Dev. Sci. 1–13.

https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2019.1647106

38.Rickert, N.P., Meras, I.L., &Witkow, M.R. (2014). Theories of intelligence and students' daily self-handicapping behaviors. Learning and Individual Differences, 36: 1-8.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.08.002

39. Eyink, J., Hirt, E.R., Hendrix, K.S., & Galante, E. (2017). Circadian variations in claimed self-handicapping: Exploring the strategic use of stress as an excuse. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 69: 102-110.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.07.010

40. Carvalho, R.G.G. (2015). Future time perspective as a predictor of adolescents’ adaptive behavior in school. School Psychology International, 36(5): 482-497.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034315601167

41. Andretta, J.R., Worrell, F.C., & Mello, Z.R. (2014). Predicting educational outcomes and psychologi­cal wellbeing in adolescents using time attitude profiles. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 434-451.

https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21762

42. Andretta, J.R., Worrell, F.C., Mello, Z.R., Dixson, D.D., & Baik, S.H. (2013). Demographic group dif­ferences in adolescents' time attitudes. Journal of Adolescence, 36(2), 289-301.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.11.005

43. Lee, N., Krabbendam, L., & Dekker, S. (2012). Aca­demic motivation mediates the influence of tem­poral discounting on academic achievement dur­ing adolescence. Trends in Neuroscience and Ed­ucation, 1(1), 43-18.

https://research.ou.nl/en/publications/academic-motivation-mediates-the-influence-of-temporal-discountin

44. Husman, J., Hilpert, J.C., & Brem, S.K. (2016). Future time perspective connectedness to a career: The contextual effects of classroom knowledge build­ing. Psychological Belgica,  56(3), 210-225.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305310447_Future_Time_Perspective_Connectedness_to_a_Career_The_Contextual_Effects_of_Classroom_Knowledge_Building

45. Mello, Z.R., Bhadare, D., Fearn, E.J., Galaviz, M.M., Hartmann, E.S., & Worrell, F.C. (2009). The window, the river, and the novel: Examining ado­lescents’ conceptions of the past, the present, and the future. Adolescence, 44, 539-556.

https://www.hanspub.org/reference/ReferencePapers.aspx?ReferenceID=120145

46.Horstmansh of, L., &Zimitat, C. (2007). Future time orientation predicts academic engagement among first‐year university students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 703-718.

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ775610

47. Peetsma, T., & Van der Veen, I. (2011). Relations be­tween the development of future time perspective in three life domains, investment in learning, and academic achievement. Learning and Instruction, 21(3), 481-494.

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ915757

48. Lerner, R.M., Von Eye, A., Lerner, J.V., Lewin-Bizan, S., & Bowers, E.P. (2010). Special issue introduc­tion: The meaning and measurement of thriving: A view of the issues. Youth Adolescence, 39, 707-719.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10964-010-9531-8

49. Husman, J., & Lens, W. (1999). The role of the future in student motivation. Educational Psychologist, 34(2): 113-125.

https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3402_4

50. Fryer, L.K., Ginns, P., & Walker, R. (2014). Between students' instrumental goals and how they learn: Goal content is the gap to mind. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 612-630.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25160115/

51. O’Brien, W.K. (2002). Applying the trans theoretical model to academic procrastination. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Houston.

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2002-95010-384

52. Kachgal, M.M., Hansen, L.S., & Nutter, K.J. (2001). Academic procrastination prevention/intervention: Strategies and recommendations. Journal of Developmental Education, 25, 14-24.

https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ639667

53. Steel, P., Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2001). Procrastination and personality performance and mood. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 95-106.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223204948_Procrastination_and_personality_performance_and_mood

54. Cunningham, J.L. (2007). Stress, Need for Recovery, and Ineffective Self-Management. The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga. PhD Dissertation, at Bowling Green State University.

https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/psychology_diss/115

55. Cooper Smith, S. (1967).The antecedents of self-esteem San Francisco. H Freeman and Company.

https://www.amazon.com/Antecedents-Self-Esteem-Books-Behavioral Science/dp/0716709120

56. Elliot, A.J., & McGregor, H. (2001). A 2 × 2 Achievement Goal Framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(3): 501-19.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.501

57. Tangney, J., Baumeister, R.F., & Boone, A.L. (2004). High self-control predicts good adjustment, less pathology, better grades, and interpersonal success. Journal of Personality, 72, 271-324.

DOI: 10.1111/j.0022-3506.2004.00263.x

 

58. Comrey, A.L., & Lee, H.B. (1992). A first course in factor analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1992-97707-000

59. Hooman, H.A. (2009). Psychological and educational measurements (test preparation technique and questionnaire). Tehran: Peyk Farhang Publications.

https://www.scirp.org/reference/ReferencesPapers.aspx?ReferenceID=1287417

60. Scott, S.G., & Bruce, R.A. (1995). Decision-Making Style: The Development and Assessment of a New Measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 55(5): 818-831.

[DOI: org/10.1177/0013164495055005017]

61. Solomon, L.J., &Rothblum, E.D. (1984). Academic procrastination: frequency and cognitive-behavioral correlates. Journal of counseling psychology, 31(4): 503.

https://www.academia.edu/45101621/Procrastination_and_its_effect_on_English_writing_errors_and_writing_performance_of_medical_students

62. Seif, A.A. (2015). Develop tools for measuring research variables in psychology and educational sciences. Tehran: didar.

file:///C:/Users/m-pc/AppData/Local/Temp/Edu%20Str%20Med%20Sci-Journal-v11-n3-isc-1.xml

63. Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, edition 4, Guilford press, New York & London.

http://repositorii.urindo.ac.id/repository2/files/original/b82f02562dfda5b0847b54046b85128bd7a5836a.pdf

64. Meade, A.W., &Kroustalis, C.M. (2005). Problems of item parceling with CFA tests of measurement invariance, Paper presented at the 20th Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial and rganizational. Psychology, Los Angeles, CA. 1-14.

https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.460.2892&rep=rep1&type=pdf

65. Glick, D.M., & Orsillo, S.M. (2015). An investigation of the efficacy of acceptance-based behavioral therapy for academic procrastination. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 144(2), 400.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25688905/

66. Wang, S., Zhou, Y., Yu, S., Ran, L.W., Liu, X.P., & Chen, Y.F. (2017). Acceptance and commitment therapy and cognitive–behavioral therapy as treatments for academic procrastination: A randomized controlled group session. Research on Social Work Practice, 1: 48-58.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731515577890

67. Cheung, W.K.D. (2018). Improving Self-regulation by Regulating Mind-Wandering Through the Practice of Mindfulness. Paper presented at International Conference on Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 498-502). Springer, Cham.

https://asj.basu.ac.ir/m/article_3360.html?lang=en

68. Vannice, J., &Losoff, R. (2017). Self-Regulation. In J. Kreutzer et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (PP.25-36). Springer International Publishing.

file:///C:/Users/m-pc/AppData/Local/Temp/4026713991407-1.pdf

69. Mikaeilia, N., &Barahmand, U. (2013). Training in Self -Regulation Enhances Psychological Well-being of Distressed Couples. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84: 66 – 69.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.511

 

70. Torok, L., Szabó, Z.P., & Tóth, L. (2018). A critical review of the literature on academic self-handicapping: theory, manifestations, prevention and measurement. Social Psychology of Education, 21(5): 1175-1202.

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11218-018-9460-z

71. Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: Examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of educational psychology, 96(2): 251.

https://eric.ed.gov/?q=%22Urdan+Tim%22&id=EJ684988

72. Popoola, F.R., & Olarewaju, R.R. (2014). Factors Responsible for Poor Performance of Students in Mathematics in Nigeria. In: Elliot AJ, Dweck CS (Eds). Handbook of competence and motivation. New York: Guilford Publications.

http://www.icidr.org/jres_v1nos2n3_2010/Factors%20Responsible%20for%20Poor%20Performance%20of%20Students%20in%20Mathematics%20in%20Nigerian%20Secondary%20Schools.pdf

73. Del Mar ferradas, M., Freire, C., Nune, Z.J.C.,Pineiro, I.,&Rosario,P. (2016). Motivational profiles in university students.its relationship with self-handicapping and defensive pessimism strategies.learning and individual differences.56,-128-135.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.10.018

74. Clarke, I.E., & Macann, C. (2016).Internal and external aspects of self-handicapping reflect the distinction between motivations and behaviors:evidence from the self-handicapping inventory.personality and individual Differences.100،6-11.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886916302343

75. Hendrix, K. S., & Hirt, E. R. (2009). Stressed out over possible failure: The role of regulatory fit on claimed self-handicapping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(1), 51–59.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2008.08.016

76. Garcia,T. (1995). The role of motivational strategies in self-regulated learning.New directions for teaching and learning, (62), 29-42.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.37219956306

77. SayyedSalehi., M.,& Farrokhi, N. (2017). Explanation of Academic Self-Handicapping Based on Effective Factors: Examination of a Comprehensive Conceptual Model. Quarterly Journal of Research in School and Virtual Learning. 4(4); 9-22.

http://ensani.ir/file/download/article/20171202144007-9940-106.pdf

78. Uysal,A.,& Knee,C.R.(2012). Low trait self-control predicts self-handicapping.journalof personality, 80(1),59-79.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00715.x

79. Antony, J. (2016). Academic Self-Efficacy and Self-Handicapping: Are they Influenced by Self- Regulated Learning? Journal of Research: THE BEDE ATHENAEUM, 7(1), 15-22.

http://dx.doi. org/10.5958/0976-1748.2016.00003.5

80. Mamaril, N. A., Usher, E. L., & Coyle, B. A. (2013). Academic self-handicapping and self-efficacy as predictors of mathematics achievement of African American middle school students. P20 Motivation and Learning Lab, University of Kentucky, College of Education, Kentucky, USA.

https://motivation.uky.edu/files/2013/08/MamarilUsherCoyle.pdf

81. Higgins, R.L., &Berglas, S. (1990).The maintenance and treatment of self-handicapping In Self- Handicapping,187-238.

https://link.springer.com/bookseries/6457

82. Mahbod, M., Sheikholeslami, R. (2015). The self-Handicapping Based on Family Processes: Mediational Effect of Academic self-Efficacy. Developmental Pschology: Iranian Psychologists. 11(44): 391-404.

https://www.sid.ir/fa/journal/ViewPaper.aspx?id=256800

83. Torok, L., szabo, Z.P., & Boda-ujlaky, J. (2014). Self-esteem, self-conscious emotions, resilience, trait anxiety and their relation to self-handicapping tendencies.Review ofpsychology, 21(2), 123-130.

https://hrcak.srce.hr/147119

84. Rappo, G., Alesi, M., & Pepi, A. (2016). The effects of school anxiety on self-esteem and self-handicapping in pupils attending primary school.Europeam journal of Developmental psychology, 14(4),465-476."

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01939

85. Azadi, E., Fathabadi, J., & Heydari, M. (2013). The Relationship between Unstable Self-Esteem and Fear of Negative Assessment with Self-Disability in Tehran Student Adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, No. 29. 46-23

https://jep.atu.ac.ir/article_6100.html

86. Sabegi, L.,Danesh, Esmat; Rezabakhsh, Hossein; & Saliminia, N. (2014). Determining the level of self-esteem predictor in self-disability among champion and non-champion student-athletes in the Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science. Journal of Clinical Psychology and Personality of Shahed University (Behavior Scholar). 21(11): 36-25.

http://cpap.shahed.ac.ir/article_2715.html

87. Harford, W.J. (2011). Connectedness and perceived instrumentality in preservice teachers: A comparison of two measures. New Mexico: The University of New Mexico.

https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/educ_ifce_etds/26

88. Elliot, S., & Choi, H.C. (2011). Motivational considerations of the new generations of cruising. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 18 (1): 41-47.

https://doi.org/10.1375/jhtm.18.1.41

89. Kim, S., Fernandez, S., & Terrier, L. (2017). Procrastination, personality traits, and academic performance: When active and passive procrastination tell a different story. Personality and Individual differences, 108: 154-157.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.12.021

90. Mohammadi, Z., Jowkar, B.,& Chari, MH. (2014). The Anticipation of self-defeating behaviours by goal orientation: The meditational role of shame and guilt feelings. Developmental Pschology: Iranian Psychologists, 11(41): 83-102.

http://jip.azad.ac.ir/article_512182.html

91. Tamanaifar, M.R., SedighiArfai, F., Salami, M., & Abadi, F. (2011). The Relationship of Emotional Intelligence, Self-Concept and Self Esteem to Academic Achivement. IRPHE. 16 (2):99-113.

http://journal.irphe.ac.ir/article-1-868-fa.html

92. Kruger, J., & Dunning, D. (1999). Unskilled and unaware of it: how difficulties in recognizing one's own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments. Journal of personality and social psychology, 77(6): 1121.

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121