Psychometric Analysis Test of the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire among students
Subject Areas : Learning
1 - Assistant, Faculty member of Organization for Educational Research and Planning, Tehran, Iran
Keywords: factor validity, Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire, Student Course Engagement Questionnaire,
Abstract :
The aim of the present study was to investigate psychometric analysis of the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire. The method of study was descriptive and correlational. The statistical population was all students of Tehran universities in 1400, of which 371 students were selected as a sample use of convenience sampling method based on Klein (2010) proposal. In this correlation study, they completed the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire (Martin & Bolliger, 2018) and Student Course Engagement Questionnaire (Dixson, 2015). The exploratory factor analysis method and internal consistency were used to compute the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire's factorial validity and reliability, respectively. Also, in order to examine the convergent validity of the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire, we studied correlations between different dimensions of Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire with Student Course Engagement Questionnaire. The results of principal component analysis (PC) and oblimin rotation replicated 4 factor structures: peer engagement, multimodal engagement, instructor engagement & self-directed engagement in the Iranian samples. Correlational analyses between Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire's factors with Student Course Engagement Questionnaire's factors provided initial evidence for the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire convergent validity. Internal consistency for the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire's factors was desirable (a=0.87). These findings provide evidence for the validity and reliability of the Online Engagement Strategies Questionnaire as an instrument to identification & assessment the online engagement main strategies among Iranian students.
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Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Bures, E. M., Borokhovski, E., & Tamim, R. M. (2011). Interaction in distance education and online learning: Using evidence and theory to improve practice. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 23(2-3), 82–103.
Akcaoglu, M., & Lee, E. (2016). Increasing social presence in online learning through small group discussions. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 17, 3.
Alestalo, M. H., & Pletola, U. (2006). The problem of a Marketoriented University. Journal of Higher Education, 52, 251-281.
Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: an updated & theoretical rationale for interaction. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 4, 2.
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: a developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 40 (5), 518-529.
Berry, S. (2017). Building community in online doctoral classrooms: instructor practices that support community. Online Learning, 21, 2.
Biasutti, M. (2017). A comparative analysis of forums & wikis as tools for online collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 111, 158-171.
Boling, E.C., Holan, E., Horbatt, B., Hough, M., Jean-Louis, J., Khurana, C., Krinsky, H., & Spiezio, C. (2014). Using online tools for communication & collaboration: understanding educators’ experiences in an online course. The Internet & Higher Education, 23, 48-55.
Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2020). Factors underlying the perceived importance of online student engagement strategies. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 1-16.
Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2022). Designing Online Learning in Higher Education. O. Zawacki-Richter, I. Jung (eds.), Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0351-9_72-1
Buelow, J.R., Barry, T.A. & Rich, L.E. (2018). Supporting learning engagement with online students. Online Learning Journal, 22, 4, 313-340.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The Scree Test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 2, 245-276.
Cavanaugh, A. J., & Song, L. (2014). Audio feedback versus written feedback: instructors’ & students’ perspectives. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 10, 1, 122-138.
Chen, P. S. D., Gonyea, R., & Kuh, G. (2008). Learning at a distance: engaged or not? Innovate Journal of Online Education, 4, 3.
Chen, Y., & Carliner, S. (2021). A special SME: An integrative literature review of the relationship between instructional designers and faculty in the design of online courses for higher education. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 33, 471–495.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39, 7, 3-7.
Cho, H. (2016). Under co-construction: an online community of practice for bilingual pre-service teachers. Computers & Education, Vols 92/93, 76-89.
Dixson, M. D. (2010). Creating effective student engagement in online courses: what do students find engageing? The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 10, 2, 1-13.
Dixson, M. D. (2015). Measuring student engagement in the online course: the online student engagement scale (OSE). Online Learning, 19, 4.
Draus, P. J., Curran, M. J., & Trempus, M. S. (2014). The influence of instructor-generated video content on student satisfaction with & engagement in synchronous online classes. JOLT, 10, 2, 240-254.
Ebrahimi, S. (2020). Creating a community in virtual high school classrooms. National Conference on Research in Psychology, 1-14. [Persian]
Exter, M. E., Korkmaz, N., Harlin, N. M., & Bichelmeyer, B. A. (2009). Sense of community within a fully online program: perspectives of graduate students. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10, 2, 177-195.
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: interaction is not enough. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19, 3, 133-148.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet & Higher Education, 2 Nos 2-3, 87-105.
Gaytan, J. (2013). Factors affecting student retention in online courses: overcoming this critical problem. Career & Technical Education Research, 38, 2, 147-155.
Handelsman, M. M., Briggs, W.L., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A measure of college student course engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 98, 3, 184-192.
Henrie, C. R., Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2015). Measuring student engagement in technologymediated learning: a review. Computers & Education, 90, 36-53.
Hew, K. F. (2016). Promoting engagement in online courses: what strategies can we learn from three highly rated MOOCs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47, 2, 320-341.
Jafarifar, H. (2012). Interaction in teaching-learning environments. Tehran: Avaye Noor. [Persian]
Kaiser, J., Retelsdorf, J., S€udkamp, A., & M€oller, J. (2013). Achievement & engagement: how student characteristics influence teacher judgments. Learning & Instruction, 28, 73-84.
Kelly, R. (2014). Five things online students want from faculty. Faculty Focus.
Kent, M. (2013). Changing the conversation: Facebook as a venue for online class discussion in higher education. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 9, 4, 546-565.
Ko, S., & Rossen, S. (2010). Teaching Online: A Practical Guide, 3rd ed., Routledge. New York, NY.
Kopp, B., Matteucci, M. C., & Tomasetto, C. (2012). E-tutorial support for collaborative online learning: an explorative study on experienced & inexperienced e-tutors. Computers & Education, 58, 1, 12-20.
Kuo, Y. C., Walker, A. E., Belland, B. R., & Schroder, K. E. E. (2013). A predictive study of student satisfaction in online education programs. IRRODL, 14(1),16-39.
Laato, S., Lipponen, E., Salmento, H., Vilppu, H., & Murtonen, M. (2019). Minimizing the number of dropouts in university pedagogy online courses, Proceedings of the 11the International Conference on Computer Supported Education –1 in Heraklion, Greece, 2019. Science & Technology Publications, 587-596.
Lawanto, O., Santoso, H. B., Lawanto, K. N., & Goodridge, W. (2014). Self-regulated learning skills & online activities between higher & lower performers on a web-intensive undergraduate engineering course. Journal of Educators Online, 11, 3.
Mandernach, B. J., Donnelli-Sallee, E., & Dailey-Hebert, A. (2011). Assessing course student engagement. Promoting Student Engagement, 1, 277-281.
Marbouti, F., & Wise, A. F. (2016). Starburst: a new graphical interface to support purposeful attention to others’ posts in online discussions. Educational Technology Research & Development, 64, 1, 87-113.
Martin, F., & Bolliger, D. U. (2018). Engagement matters: student perceptions on the importance of engagement strategies in the online learning environment. Online Learning Journal, 22, 1, 205-222.
Martin, F., Bolliger, D. U., & Flowers, C. (2021). Design matters: Development & validation of the Online Course Design Elements instrument. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 22(2), 46–71.
Martin, F., Wang, C., & Sadaf, A. (2020b). Facilitation matters: Instructor perceptions of helpfulness of facilitation strategies in online courses. Online Learning, 24(1), 28–49.
McBrien, J. L., Cheng, R., & Jones, P. (2009). Virtual spaces: employing a synchronous online classroom to facilitate student engagement in online learning. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 10, 3.
Mertler, C. A., & Vannatta, R. A. (2010). Advanced & Multivariate Statistical Methods: Practical Application & Interpretation, 4th ed., Pyrczak, Los Angeles, CA.
Moore, M. G. (1993a). Theory of transactional distance, in Keegan, D. (Ed.), Theoretical Principles of Distance Education, Routledge, New York, 22-38.
Murphy, E., & Rodr_ıguez-Manzanares, M. A. (2012). Rapport in distance education. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 13, 1, 167-190.
Nejati, R. (2021). The relationship between active participation and academic achievement in online English class after the outbreak of Covid 19 in Iran. Education Technology, 15 (4), 623-634. [Persian]
Nekavand, M., Jafari, P., & Arasteh, H. (2018). Academic enthusiasm of medical students and the role of teaching and learning environment in it. Islamic Azad University of Medical Sciences, 28 (1), 58-65. [Persian]
Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The significance & sources of student engagement, in Newmann, F. (Ed.), Student Engagement & Achievement in American Secondary Schools, Teachers College Press, New York, NY, 11-39.
Olesova, L., Slavin, M. & Lim, J. (2016). Exploring the effect of scripted roles on cognitive presence in asynchronous online discussions. Online Learning, 20, 4, 34-53.
Orcutt, J. M., & Dringus, L.P. (2017). Beyond being there: practices that establish presence, engage students & influence intellectual curiosity in a structured online learning environment. Online Learning, 21, 3, 15-35.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research, 2nd ed., Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Phirangee, K. (2016). Students’ perceptions of learner-learner interactions that weaken a sense of community in an online learning environment. Online Learning, 20, 4, 13-33.
Preisman, K. A. (2014). Teaching presence in online education: from the instructor’s point of view. Online Learning, 18, 3.
Prior, D. D., Mazanov, J., Meacheam, D., Heaslip, G., & Hanson, J. (2016). Attitude, digital literacy & self-efficacy: flow-on effects for online learning behavior. The Internet & Higher Education, 29, 91-97.
Rashid, T. & Asghar, H. M. (2016), Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement & academic performance: examining the interrelations, Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 604-612.
Redman Mingo, V. (2010). The Relationships Among Student Characteristic Variables, Student Engagement Variables, & the Academic Performance of African American Male Students at Two-Year Colleges, Doctoral Dissertation, available at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/246.
Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. (2003), Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students’ perceived learning & satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7, 1, 68-88.
Rovai, A. P. (2002). Development of an instrument to measure classroom community. The Internet & Higher Education, 5, 3, 197-211, doi: 10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00102-1.
Rye, S. A. & Støkken, A.M. (2012). The implications of the local context in global virtual education. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 13, 1, 191-206.
Seaton, J. X., & Schwier, R. A. (2014). An exploratory case Study of online instructors: factors associated with instructor engagement. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 29, 1, 1-16.
Sharp, J. H., & Huett, J. B. (2006). Importance of learner-learner interaction in distance education. Information Systems Education Journal, 46, 4, available at: http://isedj.org/4/46/ISEDJ.4(46).Sharp.pdf.
Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2009). Community of Inquiry as a theoretical framework to foster epistemic engagement & cognitive presence in online education. Computers & Education, 52, 3, 543-553.
Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2012). Evaluating social connectedness online: the design & development of the social perceptions in learning contexts instrument. Distance Education, 33, 3, 347-364.
Stavredes, T., & Herder, T. (2014). A Guide to Online Course Design: Strategies for Student Success. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Stevens, J. (2010). Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
Swaggerty, E. A., & Broemmel, A.D. (2017). Authenticity, relevance, & connectedness: graduate students’ learning preferences & experiences in an online reading education course. The Internet & Higher Education, 32, 80-86.
Tawfik, A. A., Giabbanelli, P. J., Hogan, M., Msilu, F., Gill, A., & York, C.S. (2018). Effects of success v failure cases on learner-learner interaction. Computers & Education, 118, 120-132.
Teoh, B. S. P. & Neo, T.-K. (2006). Innovative teaching: using multimedia to engage students in interactive learning in higher education. 2006 7th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education & Training, in Ultimo, Australia. IEEE, Piscataway, 329-337.
Vaughan, N. D. (2010). A blended community of inquiry approach: linking student engagement & course redesign. The Internet & Higher Education, 13 Nos 1-2, 60-65.
Verstegen, D., Dailey-Hebert, A., Fonteijn, H., Clarebout, G., & Spruijt, A. (2018). How do virtual teams collaborate in online learning tasks in a MOOC? International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 19, 4.
Waters, J., & Gasson, S. (2006). Social engagement in an online community of inquiry. 2006 Proceedings of the International Conference of Information Systems in Milwaukee, USA, ICIS.
Yamagata-Lynch, L. C. (2014). Blending online asynchronous & synchronous learning. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 15, 2.
Zimmerman, T. D. (2012). Exploring learner to content interaction as a success factor in online courses. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 13, 4, 152-165.
_||_Abrami, P. C., Bernard, R. M., Bures, E. M., Borokhovski, E., & Tamim, R. M. (2011). Interaction in distance education and online learning: Using evidence and theory to improve practice. Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 23(2-3), 82–103.
Akcaoglu, M., & Lee, E. (2016). Increasing social presence in online learning through small group discussions. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 17, 3.
Alestalo, M. H., & Pletola, U. (2006). The problem of a Marketoriented University. Journal of Higher Education, 52, 251-281.
Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: an updated & theoretical rationale for interaction. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 4, 2.
Astin, A. W. (1999). Student involvement: a developmental theory for higher education. Journal of College Student Personnel, 40 (5), 518-529.
Berry, S. (2017). Building community in online doctoral classrooms: instructor practices that support community. Online Learning, 21, 2.
Biasutti, M. (2017). A comparative analysis of forums & wikis as tools for online collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 111, 158-171.
Boling, E.C., Holan, E., Horbatt, B., Hough, M., Jean-Louis, J., Khurana, C., Krinsky, H., & Spiezio, C. (2014). Using online tools for communication & collaboration: understanding educators’ experiences in an online course. The Internet & Higher Education, 23, 48-55.
Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2020). Factors underlying the perceived importance of online student engagement strategies. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 1-16.
Bolliger, D. U., & Martin, F. (2022). Designing Online Learning in Higher Education. O. Zawacki-Richter, I. Jung (eds.), Handbook of Open, Distance and Digital Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-0351-9_72-1
Buelow, J.R., Barry, T.A. & Rich, L.E. (2018). Supporting learning engagement with online students. Online Learning Journal, 22, 4, 313-340.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The Scree Test for the number of factors. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 2, 245-276.
Cavanaugh, A. J., & Song, L. (2014). Audio feedback versus written feedback: instructors’ & students’ perspectives. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 10, 1, 122-138.
Chen, P. S. D., Gonyea, R., & Kuh, G. (2008). Learning at a distance: engaged or not? Innovate Journal of Online Education, 4, 3.
Chen, Y., & Carliner, S. (2021). A special SME: An integrative literature review of the relationship between instructional designers and faculty in the design of online courses for higher education. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 33, 471–495.
Chickering, A. W., & Gamson, Z. F. (1987). Seven principles for good practice in undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, 39, 7, 3-7.
Cho, H. (2016). Under co-construction: an online community of practice for bilingual pre-service teachers. Computers & Education, Vols 92/93, 76-89.
Dixson, M. D. (2010). Creating effective student engagement in online courses: what do students find engageing? The Journal of Scholarship of Teaching & Learning, 10, 2, 1-13.
Dixson, M. D. (2015). Measuring student engagement in the online course: the online student engagement scale (OSE). Online Learning, 19, 4.
Draus, P. J., Curran, M. J., & Trempus, M. S. (2014). The influence of instructor-generated video content on student satisfaction with & engagement in synchronous online classes. JOLT, 10, 2, 240-254.
Ebrahimi, S. (2020). Creating a community in virtual high school classrooms. National Conference on Research in Psychology, 1-14. [Persian]
Exter, M. E., Korkmaz, N., Harlin, N. M., & Bichelmeyer, B. A. (2009). Sense of community within a fully online program: perspectives of graduate students. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 10, 2, 177-195.
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: interaction is not enough. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19, 3, 133-148.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (1999). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet & Higher Education, 2 Nos 2-3, 87-105.
Gaytan, J. (2013). Factors affecting student retention in online courses: overcoming this critical problem. Career & Technical Education Research, 38, 2, 147-155.
Handelsman, M. M., Briggs, W.L., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A measure of college student course engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 98, 3, 184-192.
Henrie, C. R., Halverson, L. R., & Graham, C. R. (2015). Measuring student engagement in technologymediated learning: a review. Computers & Education, 90, 36-53.
Hew, K. F. (2016). Promoting engagement in online courses: what strategies can we learn from three highly rated MOOCs. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47, 2, 320-341.
Jafarifar, H. (2012). Interaction in teaching-learning environments. Tehran: Avaye Noor. [Persian]
Kaiser, J., Retelsdorf, J., S€udkamp, A., & M€oller, J. (2013). Achievement & engagement: how student characteristics influence teacher judgments. Learning & Instruction, 28, 73-84.
Kelly, R. (2014). Five things online students want from faculty. Faculty Focus.
Kent, M. (2013). Changing the conversation: Facebook as a venue for online class discussion in higher education. Journal of Online Learning & Teaching, 9, 4, 546-565.
Ko, S., & Rossen, S. (2010). Teaching Online: A Practical Guide, 3rd ed., Routledge. New York, NY.
Kopp, B., Matteucci, M. C., & Tomasetto, C. (2012). E-tutorial support for collaborative online learning: an explorative study on experienced & inexperienced e-tutors. Computers & Education, 58, 1, 12-20.
Kuo, Y. C., Walker, A. E., Belland, B. R., & Schroder, K. E. E. (2013). A predictive study of student satisfaction in online education programs. IRRODL, 14(1),16-39.
Laato, S., Lipponen, E., Salmento, H., Vilppu, H., & Murtonen, M. (2019). Minimizing the number of dropouts in university pedagogy online courses, Proceedings of the 11the International Conference on Computer Supported Education –1 in Heraklion, Greece, 2019. Science & Technology Publications, 587-596.
Lawanto, O., Santoso, H. B., Lawanto, K. N., & Goodridge, W. (2014). Self-regulated learning skills & online activities between higher & lower performers on a web-intensive undergraduate engineering course. Journal of Educators Online, 11, 3.
Mandernach, B. J., Donnelli-Sallee, E., & Dailey-Hebert, A. (2011). Assessing course student engagement. Promoting Student Engagement, 1, 277-281.
Marbouti, F., & Wise, A. F. (2016). Starburst: a new graphical interface to support purposeful attention to others’ posts in online discussions. Educational Technology Research & Development, 64, 1, 87-113.
Martin, F., & Bolliger, D. U. (2018). Engagement matters: student perceptions on the importance of engagement strategies in the online learning environment. Online Learning Journal, 22, 1, 205-222.
Martin, F., Bolliger, D. U., & Flowers, C. (2021). Design matters: Development & validation of the Online Course Design Elements instrument. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 22(2), 46–71.
Martin, F., Wang, C., & Sadaf, A. (2020b). Facilitation matters: Instructor perceptions of helpfulness of facilitation strategies in online courses. Online Learning, 24(1), 28–49.
McBrien, J. L., Cheng, R., & Jones, P. (2009). Virtual spaces: employing a synchronous online classroom to facilitate student engagement in online learning. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 10, 3.
Mertler, C. A., & Vannatta, R. A. (2010). Advanced & Multivariate Statistical Methods: Practical Application & Interpretation, 4th ed., Pyrczak, Los Angeles, CA.
Moore, M. G. (1993a). Theory of transactional distance, in Keegan, D. (Ed.), Theoretical Principles of Distance Education, Routledge, New York, 22-38.
Murphy, E., & Rodr_ıguez-Manzanares, M. A. (2012). Rapport in distance education. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 13, 1, 167-190.
Nejati, R. (2021). The relationship between active participation and academic achievement in online English class after the outbreak of Covid 19 in Iran. Education Technology, 15 (4), 623-634. [Persian]
Nekavand, M., Jafari, P., & Arasteh, H. (2018). Academic enthusiasm of medical students and the role of teaching and learning environment in it. Islamic Azad University of Medical Sciences, 28 (1), 58-65. [Persian]
Newmann, F. M., Wehlage, G. G., & Lamborn, S. D. (1992). The significance & sources of student engagement, in Newmann, F. (Ed.), Student Engagement & Achievement in American Secondary Schools, Teachers College Press, New York, NY, 11-39.
Olesova, L., Slavin, M. & Lim, J. (2016). Exploring the effect of scripted roles on cognitive presence in asynchronous online discussions. Online Learning, 20, 4, 34-53.
Orcutt, J. M., & Dringus, L.P. (2017). Beyond being there: practices that establish presence, engage students & influence intellectual curiosity in a structured online learning environment. Online Learning, 21, 3, 15-35.
Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (2005). How College Affects Students: A Third Decade of Research, 2nd ed., Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Phirangee, K. (2016). Students’ perceptions of learner-learner interactions that weaken a sense of community in an online learning environment. Online Learning, 20, 4, 13-33.
Preisman, K. A. (2014). Teaching presence in online education: from the instructor’s point of view. Online Learning, 18, 3.
Prior, D. D., Mazanov, J., Meacheam, D., Heaslip, G., & Hanson, J. (2016). Attitude, digital literacy & self-efficacy: flow-on effects for online learning behavior. The Internet & Higher Education, 29, 91-97.
Rashid, T. & Asghar, H. M. (2016), Technology use, self-directed learning, student engagement & academic performance: examining the interrelations, Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 604-612.
Redman Mingo, V. (2010). The Relationships Among Student Characteristic Variables, Student Engagement Variables, & the Academic Performance of African American Male Students at Two-Year Colleges, Doctoral Dissertation, available at: https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/246.
Richardson, J. C., & Swan, K. (2003), Examining social presence in online courses in relation to students’ perceived learning & satisfaction. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 7, 1, 68-88.
Rovai, A. P. (2002). Development of an instrument to measure classroom community. The Internet & Higher Education, 5, 3, 197-211, doi: 10.1016/S1096-7516(02)00102-1.
Rye, S. A. & Støkken, A.M. (2012). The implications of the local context in global virtual education. The International Review of Research in Open & Distributed Learning, 13, 1, 191-206.
Seaton, J. X., & Schwier, R. A. (2014). An exploratory case Study of online instructors: factors associated with instructor engagement. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 29, 1, 1-16.
Sharp, J. H., & Huett, J. B. (2006). Importance of learner-learner interaction in distance education. Information Systems Education Journal, 46, 4, available at: http://isedj.org/4/46/ISEDJ.4(46).Sharp.pdf.
Shea, P., & Bidjerano, T. (2009). Community of Inquiry as a theoretical framework to foster epistemic engagement & cognitive presence in online education. Computers & Education, 52, 3, 543-553.
Slagter van Tryon, P. J., & Bishop, M. J. (2012). Evaluating social connectedness online: the design & development of the social perceptions in learning contexts instrument. Distance Education, 33, 3, 347-364.
Stavredes, T., & Herder, T. (2014). A Guide to Online Course Design: Strategies for Student Success. Jossey Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Stevens, J. (2010). Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ.
Swaggerty, E. A., & Broemmel, A.D. (2017). Authenticity, relevance, & connectedness: graduate students’ learning preferences & experiences in an online reading education course. The Internet & Higher Education, 32, 80-86.
Tawfik, A. A., Giabbanelli, P. J., Hogan, M., Msilu, F., Gill, A., & York, C.S. (2018). Effects of success v failure cases on learner-learner interaction. Computers & Education, 118, 120-132.
Teoh, B. S. P. & Neo, T.-K. (2006). Innovative teaching: using multimedia to engage students in interactive learning in higher education. 2006 7th International Conference on Information Technology Based Higher Education & Training, in Ultimo, Australia. IEEE, Piscataway, 329-337.
Vaughan, N. D. (2010). A blended community of inquiry approach: linking student engagement & course redesign. The Internet & Higher Education, 13 Nos 1-2, 60-65.
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