The aim of this paper was to investigate the application of different types of shifts and their influence in translation in various languages, especially English and Persian Languages. To this purpose, the researcher attempted to benefit from various approaches of shift analysis such as grammar, style, and pragmatics relevant to the proposed study, based on the translation strategies proposed by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), that is, direct translation, oblique translation strategies and their subgroups at the three levels of lexicon, structure, and message. The researcher also conducted a detailed linguistic analysis of the structure in both English and Persian Languages commonly referred to as the analysis of micro-structure and the analysis of macro- structure. The obtained results revealed that the occurrence of shifts in translation reflects the translator’s awareness of the linguistic and the non-linguistic discrepancies between SL and TL. In fact, shifts turn out to be as problem-solving strategies to minimize the inevitable loss of meaning when rendering a text from one language into another, and preference between different types of shifts at different levels requires various types of equivalence in translation. Manuscript profile

Coursebooks are normally written to contain information, instruction, exposure, and activities that learn- ers at a particular level need to enhance their communicative competence in the target language. Howev- er, many global course books make attempts to include content, topics, and texts that do not disadvantage any learner around the world. That is why global course books normally do not reflect the reality of the classroom in terms of the students‟ English proficiency level, interests,wants, and needs. Therefore, it is perhaps up to language teachers to develop, evaluate, and adapt language teaching materials for their own classrooms. This review addresses the issue of the role of teachers as materials developers, and how they can meet materials development demands by exploiting their creativity and employing the principles of developing materials targeted in this study. Consequently, the main purpose of this review is to provide prospective language teachers with certain principles and guidelines on development, evaluation, adapta- tion, and humanization of language learning materials for their EFL learners. Collectively, the major im- plication for this review is to inspire EFL teachers to reflectively use systematic procedures in materials development to design, implement, and evaluate language learning materials rather than simply employ- ing globally harmonious and undisturbed published materials during their instruction. Manuscript profile

The current study examined the effect of scaffolding through presenting examples and pictures on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning and retention.For this purpose, six research niquestions were posed and a quasi- experimental design was applied with two groups of learners who were selected as experimental groups. This research was carried out with a sample of 60 English students from Iran Zaban Institution. The data were collected using three instruments. Primarily, a standard test of Nelson which had 50 items was used to assess general proficiency of the learners for the purpose of their homogeneity. Then, in order to investigate the learner’s lexical knowledge before executing the scaffolding strategies used by examples and pictures, the researcher prepared a vocabulary test used as pretest. At the end of the treatment the students’ lexical knowledge was assessed by a posttest. Also a vocabulary test was used in order to measure their vocabulary retention after two weeks. The results indicated that employing examples helps vocabulary learning as well as retention. In addition, it was shown that using pictures helps both vocabulary learning and retention, and employing examples and pictures have almost the same effect on vocabulary learning. Finally, the results are discussed and compared with the previous ones, implications are explained, and some suggestions and recommendations are provided. Manuscript profile