The Effect of Brassinosteroied Application on Water Stress Tolerance of Coneflower (Echinacea purpurea L.)

Subject Areas : Journal of Crop Ecophysiology

Motalleb  Hosseinpour ¹ (دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی)
Ali  Ebadi ² (Professor, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran)
Esmaeil  Nabizadeh ³ (Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Islamic Azad University, Mahabad Branch, Mahabad, Iran)
Hassan  Habibi ⁴ (Assistant Prof., Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran)
Soodabeh  Jahanbakhsh Godekahriz ⁵ (Associate Prof., Department of Agronomy and Plant Breeding, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran)

Received: 2016-12-03 Accepted : 2017-08-13 Published : 2018-12-22

Keywords: Carotenoid, photosynthetic pigment, economy yield, esentioal oil yield,

Abstract :

Drought can have a dramatic effect on plant growth. To evaluate the effect of brassinosteroied on drought stress tolerance of coneflower a split split plot experiement based on randomized complete blook design was conducted in Mahabad. The factors were irrigation regime as the main factor, with three levels (irrigation after 70, 120 and 170 mm evaporation from pan class A), the use of surfactants with two levels (without and with half a liter per hectare) and spraying 24 – Epi- brassinosteroied with three levels (control, 10-8 and 10-7 M). In this study traits like photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and total chlorophyll), auxiliary pigments (carotenoids, anthocyanins, flavonoids and phenolic compounds), SPAD index, stomatal conductance, MDA, economic performance (stem, leaf and flower yields), essential oil percent and essential oil yield were measured. The results indicated that interaction of irrigation regime by brassinosteroied application reduced the adverse effects of water stress on chlorophyll a by 28 percent. It was also revealed that the use of brassinosteroied (10-7 M) increased the variation of chlorophyll a by 35 percent and water stress reduced SPAD index by 25%. Use of brassinosteroied (10-7 M) increased SPAD index by 8%. Application of brassinosteroied (10-7 M) increased levels of carotenoids, anthocyanins and flavonoids by 17, 59 and 50 percent, respectively. Use of 10-7 M concentration of brassinosteroied under stress, also interested in stomatal conductance by 13 percent, as compared to that of not its using. The results of prediction function regression showed that stomatal conductance, amount of MDA and chlorophyll a, played significant roles in yield prediction. The results of water stress also, showed a determining role in reducing major growth factors of Echinacea purpurea. But the use of brassinosteroied along with surfactant solution increased its drought tolerance.

References:

· Ahmadi Mosavi, E., KH. Kalantari, and M. Torkzade. 2005. Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on lipid peroxidation, prolin, sugar and photosynthesis pigments content of canola (Brassica napus L.) under water stress. Physiology. 18: 295-306. (In Persian).
· Ahmadian, A., A. Ghanbari, and M. Golvi. 2009. The Interaction effect of water Stress and animal manure on yield components, essential oil and chemical composition of Cuminum cyminum. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science. 40(1): 173-180. (In Persian).
· Andalibi, B. 2009. The changes to the amount and composition of essential oil of Dill (Anethum graveolens) under limited irrigation conditions during growth and development. Ph.D. dissertation Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz. (In Persian).
· Arnon, A.N. 1967. Method of extraction of chloroophll in the plants. Agronomy Journal. 23: 112-121.
· Asadisnam, S., M. Zavareh, H. Peardshti, F. Sefidkon, G.A. Nihmatzadeh, and A. Hashempoor. 2014. The effect of planting date and duration of waterlogging on some biochemical properties of leaves of purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench). National Conference on Medicinal Plants Educators and Technologists. Twenty-ninth and thirtieth November Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Ayatollah Amoli. Amol. Iran. (In Persian).
· Azizi, M., F. Rezwanee, M. Hassanzadeh Khayat, A. Lackzian, and H. Neamati. 2009. The effect of different levels of vermicompost and irrigation on morphological properties and essential oil content of german chamomile (Matricaria recutita) C.V. Goral. Iranian Jouranal of Meadicial and Aromatic Plant. 24(1): 82-93. (In Persian).
· Bajgaz, A. 2000. Effect of brassinosteroids on nucleic acids and protein content in cultured cells of chorella vulgaris. Plant Physiology and Biochemistery. 38: 209-215.
· Balouchi, H.R., S.A. Modarres Sanavy, Y. Emam, and M. Barzegar. 2008. Effect of water deficit, ultraviolet radiation and carbon dioxide enrichment on flag leaf qualitative characters of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L.). Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology and Natural Resources. 12 (45): 167-181. (In Persain).
· Bazzazi, N., M. Khodambashi, and SH. Mohammadi.2013. The Effect of drought stress on morphological characteristics and yield components of medicinal plant fenugreek. Journal of Crop Production and Processing. 8(3): 11-23. (In Persian).
· Behnamnia, M., Kh.M. Kalantari,and F. Rezanejad. 2009. Exogenous application of brassinosteroid alleviates drought-induced oxidativestress in Lycopersicon esculentum L. General and Applied Plant Physiology. 35 (1-2): 22-34.
· Bettaieb, I., N. Zakhama, N. Aidi-Wannes, M.E. Kchouk, and B. Marzouk. 2009. Water deficit effects on Salvia officinalis fatty acids and essential oils composition. Scientia Horticulturae. 120: 271-275.
· Chaichi, M.R., P. Nurre, J. Slaven, and M. Rostamza. 2015. Surfactant application on yield and irrigation water use efficiency in corn under limited irrigation. Crop Science. 55: 386-393.
· Daneshnia, F., and M.R. Chaichi. 2014. The effect of surfactant application and limited irrigation systems on qualitative traits of medicinal forage (Case Study: berseem clover and basil intercropping). 1^stInternational and 13^thIranian Crop Science Congress 3 ^rd Iranian Seed Science and Technology Conference. Karaj, Iran. (In Persian).
· De Vos, C., H. Schat, M. De Waal, R. Vooijs, and W. Ernst. 1991. Increased to copperinduced damage of the root plasma membrane in copper tolerant silene cucubalus. PlantPhysiology. 82: 523-528.
· Eiasu, B.K., J.M. Steyn, and P. Soundy. 2012. Physiomorphological response of rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium spp.) to irrigation frequency. South African Journal of Botany. 78: 96-103.
· Ekrena, S., C. Sonmez, E. Ozcakal, Y.S.K. Kurttas, E. Bayram, and H. Gurgulu. 2012. The effect of different irrigation water levels on yield and quality characteristics of purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Agricultural Water Management. 109: 155-161.
· Eskandari, M. 2011. Effect of 28-hemobrassinolid to reducing the effects of drought in savory herbs. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 3(11): 183-187.
· FathiAmirkhiz, K., M. Amini Dehaghi, and S.Heshmati. 2015. Study the effect of iron chelate on chlorophyll content, photochemical efficiency and some biochemical traits in safflower under deficit irrigation condition. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science. 46(1): 137-145. (In Persian).
· Figueiredo, A.C., J.G. Barroso, L.G. Pedro, and J.J. Scheffer. 2008. Factors affecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile components and essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 23: 213-226.
· Fu, J., and B. Huang. 2001. Involvement of antioxidant and lipid peroxidation in the adaptation of two cool-season grasses to localized drought stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 45: 105-114.
· Gautam, P.P., A.K. Fritz, M.B.K. Kirkham, and B. Gill. 2011. Response of Aegilops species to drought stress during reproductive stages of development. Fundamental for Life. Soil, Crop & Environmental Sciences. Internatinal Annual Meetings. 16-19.
· Ghorbanali, M., and M. Niakan. 2005. Evaluation of drought stress effect on soluble sugars content, protein, prolin and phenolic compounds and nitrate reeducates activity in soybean cultivar Gorgan 3. Iranian Journal of Science Education. 1(2): 537-550. (In Persian).
· Grace, S.C., and B.A. Logan. 2000. Energy dissipation and radical scavenging by the plant phenyl propanoid pathway. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 355: 1499-1510.· Habibi, H., D. Mazaheri, N. Majnoon Hosseini, M.R. Chaichi, M. Tabatabai, and M. Bigdeli, 2011. Evaluation of the impact of organic sources (biological) and inorganic nitrogen (urea) on performance and secondary metabolites both wild and cultivated plant species of thyme (Thymus spp.). Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Crop and Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Tehran University.129 pp (In Persian).
· Hanstein, S.M., and H.H. Felle. 2002. CO₂-triggered chloride release from guard cells in intact faba bean leaves. Kinetics of the onset of stomatal closure. Plant Physiology. 130: 940-950.
· Hataei, Sh. 2004. The effect of drought on physiological characteristics and activity of antioxidant enzymes in different cultivars of peas. M.S. dissertation. Agricultural faculty in Karaj, Islamic Azad University of Karaj. 150 pp. (In Persian).
· Heidari Sharif-Abad, H. 2000. Plants, aridity, and drought. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelans, Tehran, Iran. 200pp. (In Persian).
· Inze, D., and M.V. Montagu. 2000 Oxidative stress in plants. T.J. International Ltd, Padstow, Carnawell. Great Britain. 321pp
· Jaleel, C.A., R. Gopi, B. Sankar, M. Gomathinayagam, and R. Panneerselvam. 2008. Differential responses in water use efficiency in two varieties of Catharanthus roseus under drought stress. Comptes Rendus Biologies. 33: 42-47.
· Jin, J., S. Ningwei, B. Jinhe, and G. Junping. 2006. Regulation of ascorbate peroxidase the transcript level is involved in tolerance to postharvest water deficit stress in the cut Rose (Rose Hybrida L.) cv. Samantha. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 40: 236-243.
· Khazaie, H.R., F. Nadjafib, and M. Bannayan. 2008. Effect of irrigation frequency and planting density on herbage biomass and oil production of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis). Industrial Crops and Products. 27: 315–321.
· Krizek, D.T., S.J. Britz, and R.M. Mirecki. 1998. Inhibitory effects of ambient levels of solar UV-A and UV-B radiation on growth of, New Red Fire Lettuce. Physiology Plant. 103: 1-7.
· Lebaschy, M.H., and E. Sharifi Ashoorabadi. 2004. Growth indices of some medicinal plants under different water stresses. Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research. 20(3): 249-261. (In Persian).
· Leng, P., H. Itamura, H. Yamamura, and M.X. Deng, 2000. Anthocyanin accumulation in apple and peach shoots during cold acclimation. Scientia Horticulturae. 83: 43-50.
· Letchamo, W., L.V. Polydeonny, N.O. Gladisheva, and T.J. Arnason. 2002 Factors affecting Echinacea quality. In: Trends in new crops and new uses (eds. Janick J, Whipkey A.). 514 pp. ASHS Press: Alexandria VA.
· Li, K.R., H.H. Wang, G. Han, Q.J. Wang, and J. Fan. 2008. Effects of brassinolide on the survival, growth and drought resistance of Robinia pseudoacacia seedlings under water-stress. New Forests. 35: 255-266.
· Meri, H.R. 2004. Physiology and yield of crops plants under drought stress. Press the Navid of Shiraz. (In Persian).
· Motsa, N.M., P. Soundy, J.M. Steyn, R.A. Learmonth, N.Mojela, and C. Teubes. 2006. Plant shoot age and temperature effects on essential oil yield and oil composition of rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.) grown in South Africa. Journal of Essential Oil Research. 18: 106-110.
· Mrozikiewicz, P.M., A. Bogacz, M. Karasiewicz, P.L. Mikolajczak, M. Ozarowski, A. Seremak-Mrozikiewicz, B. Czerny, T. Bobkiewicz-Kozlowska, and E. Grzeskowiak. 2010. The effect of standardized Echinacea purpurea extracts on rat cytochrome P450 expression level. Phytomedicine. 17: 830-833.
· Navrozpoor, Gh., and P. Rezvanimqadam. 2006. The effect of irrigation intervals and plant density on yield and essential oil of black seed oil (Nigella sativa L.). Research and Development in Agriculture and Horticulture. 73:133-138. (In Persian).
· Norzad, S., A. Ahmadian, M. Moghaddam, and E. Daneshfar. 2014. Effect of drought stress on yield, yield components and essential oil in coriander treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers. Agricultural Crop Management. 16(2): 289-302. (In Persian).
· Omidbaigi, R. 2005. Production and processing of medicinal plants. Tehran University. 283 pp. (In Persian).
· Ouerghi, Z., G. Cornie, M. Roudani, A. Ayadi, and J. Bruifert. 2000. Effect of NaCl on the photosynthesis of two wheat species (Triticum durum and T. aestivum) differing in their sensitivity to salt stress. Plant Physiology. 156: 335-340.
· Ozdamir, F., M. Bor, T. Demiral, and I. Turkan. 2012. Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on seed germination, seedling growth, lipid peroxidation, proline content and anti oxidative system of rice (Oriza sativa L.) under salinity stress. Plant Growth Regulation. 42: 203-211.
· Raziqiedk, W. 2006. Effect of salinity and drought stresses on phosphatase enzyme activity in bread wheat cultivars in the early stages of seed germination. M.S. Dissertation. Tehran University. 150 pp. (In Persian).
· Rezaei Chaine, A. 2012. The effect of irrigation on the accumulation of essential oil, its composition and some physiological traits in fennel. Ph.D. Thesis Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz. 93pp. (In Persian).
· Rezaei Chaine, A., S. Zehtab Salmasi, K. Ghasemi Golezani, and H. Dlazr. .2012. The effects on yield and yield components of fennel landraces. Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Knowledge. 22(4): 55-70. (In Persian).
· Rezapour, H., M. Haider, M. Glovi, and M. Ramroudi. 2011. Effect of drought stress and different amounts of sulfur fertilizer on yield and yield components and osmotic adjustment in medicinal plant buckwheat. Quarterly Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Iran Research. 27(3): 396-384. (In Persian).
· Ronald, S.F., and S.K. Laima. 1999. Phenolics and cold tolerance of Brassica napus. Plant Agriculture. 1: 1-5.
· Sabra, A., F. Daayf, and S. Renault. 2012. Differential physiological and biochemical responses of three Echinacea species to salinity stress. Scientia Horticulturae. 135: 23-31.
· Shahmoradi, Sh. 2003. Effects of drought stress on qualitative and quantitative traits of soybean cultivars and advanced Layn‌Hay. Tehran University, Tehran. M.Sc. Thesis. 104pp. (In Persian).
· Siosemardeh, A., A. Ahmadi, K. Poustini, and H. Ebrahimzadeh, 2003. Stomatal and nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis and their relationship with drought resistance in wheat cultivars. Iranian Journal of Agricultural Science. 35(1): 93-106. (In Persian).
· Sofo, A., A.C. Tuzio, B. Dichio, and C. Xiloyannis. 2005. Influence of water deficit and rewatering on the components of the ascorbate-gluta-thione cycle in four interspecific Prunus hybrids. Plant Science. 69: 403-412.
· Swamy, K.N., and S.S.R. Rao. 2009. Effect of 24-Epibrassinolide on growth, photosynthesis, and essential oil content of Pelargonium graveolens (L.) Herit. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology. 56(5): 616-620.
· Tsai, Y.L., S.Y. Chiou, K.C. Chan, and J.M. Sung. 2012. Caffeic acid derivatives, total phenols, antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of Echinacea purpurea flower extracts. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 46: 169-176.
· Wagner, G. J. 1979. Content and vacuole /extera vacuole distribution of neutral sugars, free amino acids and anthocyanin in protoplast. Plant Physiology. 68: 88-93.
· Wang, Z., and B. Huang. 2004. Physiological recovery of Kentucky bluegrass from simultaneous drought and heat stress. Crop Science. 44: 1729-1736.
· Xiao X., X. Xu, and F. Yang. 2008. Adaptive responses to progressive drought stress in two Populus cothayana populations. Silva Fennica. 42: 705-719.
· Yang, J., J. Zhang, Z. Wang, Q. Zhu, and L. Liu. 2001. Water deficit induced senescence and its relationship to the remobilization of pre-stored carbon in wheat during grain filling. Agronomy Journal. 93: 196-206.
· Yang, X. 2008. Effects of nonionic surfactant on plant growth and physiology. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of University Auburn of Alabama. 141pp.
· Zhang, M., Z. Zhai, X. Tian, L. Duan, and Z. Li. 2008. Brassinolide alleviated the adverse effect of water deficits on photosynthesis and the antioxidant of soybean (Glycine max L.). Plant Growth Regulation. 56: 257-264.
Zhuoyun, W., and L. Jia. 2016. Brassinosteroids regulate root growth, development, and symbiosis. Molecular Plant. 9(1): 86-100.

_||_

· Ahmadi Mosavi, E., KH. Kalantari, and M. Torkzade. 2005. Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on lipid peroxidation, prolin, sugar and photosynthesis pigments content of canola (Brassica napus L.) under water stress. Physiology. 18: 295-306. (In Persian).
· Ahmadian, A., A. Ghanbari, and M. Golvi. 2009. The Interaction effect of water Stress and animal manure on yield components, essential oil and chemical composition of Cuminum cyminum. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science. 40(1): 173-180. (In Persian).
· Andalibi, B. 2009. The changes to the amount and composition of essential oil of Dill (Anethum graveolens) under limited irrigation conditions during growth and development. Ph.D. dissertation Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz. (In Persian).
· Arnon, A.N. 1967. Method of extraction of chloroophll in the plants. Agronomy Journal. 23: 112-121.
· Asadisnam, S., M. Zavareh, H. Peardshti, F. Sefidkon, G.A. Nihmatzadeh, and A. Hashempoor. 2014. The effect of planting date and duration of waterlogging on some biochemical properties of leaves of purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench). National Conference on Medicinal Plants Educators and Technologists. Twenty-ninth and thirtieth November Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Ayatollah Amoli. Amol. Iran. (In Persian).
· Azizi, M., F. Rezwanee, M. Hassanzadeh Khayat, A. Lackzian, and H. Neamati. 2009. The effect of different levels of vermicompost and irrigation on morphological properties and essential oil content of german chamomile (Matricaria recutita) C.V. Goral. Iranian Jouranal of Meadicial and Aromatic Plant. 24(1): 82-93. (In Persian).
· Bajgaz, A. 2000. Effect of brassinosteroids on nucleic acids and protein content in cultured cells of chorella vulgaris. Plant Physiology and Biochemistery. 38: 209-215.
· Balouchi, H.R., S.A. Modarres Sanavy, Y. Emam, and M. Barzegar. 2008. Effect of water deficit, ultraviolet radiation and carbon dioxide enrichment on flag leaf qualitative characters of durum wheat (Triticum turgidum L.). Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology and Natural Resources. 12 (45): 167-181. (In Persain).
· Bazzazi, N., M. Khodambashi, and SH. Mohammadi.2013. The Effect of drought stress on morphological characteristics and yield components of medicinal plant fenugreek. Journal of Crop Production and Processing. 8(3): 11-23. (In Persian).
· Behnamnia, M., Kh.M. Kalantari,and F. Rezanejad. 2009. Exogenous application of brassinosteroid alleviates drought-induced oxidativestress in Lycopersicon esculentum L. General and Applied Plant Physiology. 35 (1-2): 22-34.
· Bettaieb, I., N. Zakhama, N. Aidi-Wannes, M.E. Kchouk, and B. Marzouk. 2009. Water deficit effects on Salvia officinalis fatty acids and essential oils composition. Scientia Horticulturae. 120: 271-275.
· Chaichi, M.R., P. Nurre, J. Slaven, and M. Rostamza. 2015. Surfactant application on yield and irrigation water use efficiency in corn under limited irrigation. Crop Science. 55: 386-393.
· Daneshnia, F., and M.R. Chaichi. 2014. The effect of surfactant application and limited irrigation systems on qualitative traits of medicinal forage (Case Study: berseem clover and basil intercropping). 1^stInternational and 13^thIranian Crop Science Congress 3 ^rd Iranian Seed Science and Technology Conference. Karaj, Iran. (In Persian).
· De Vos, C., H. Schat, M. De Waal, R. Vooijs, and W. Ernst. 1991. Increased to copperinduced damage of the root plasma membrane in copper tolerant silene cucubalus. PlantPhysiology. 82: 523-528.
· Eiasu, B.K., J.M. Steyn, and P. Soundy. 2012. Physiomorphological response of rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium spp.) to irrigation frequency. South African Journal of Botany. 78: 96-103.
· Ekrena, S., C. Sonmez, E. Ozcakal, Y.S.K. Kurttas, E. Bayram, and H. Gurgulu. 2012. The effect of different irrigation water levels on yield and quality characteristics of purple basil (Ocimum basilicum L.). Agricultural Water Management. 109: 155-161.
· Eskandari, M. 2011. Effect of 28-hemobrassinolid to reducing the effects of drought in savory herbs. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 3(11): 183-187.
· FathiAmirkhiz, K., M. Amini Dehaghi, and S.Heshmati. 2015. Study the effect of iron chelate on chlorophyll content, photochemical efficiency and some biochemical traits in safflower under deficit irrigation condition. Iranian Journal of Field Crop Science. 46(1): 137-145. (In Persian).
· Figueiredo, A.C., J.G. Barroso, L.G. Pedro, and J.J. Scheffer. 2008. Factors affecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile components and essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal. 23: 213-226.
· Fu, J., and B. Huang. 2001. Involvement of antioxidant and lipid peroxidation in the adaptation of two cool-season grasses to localized drought stress. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 45: 105-114.
· Gautam, P.P., A.K. Fritz, M.B.K. Kirkham, and B. Gill. 2011. Response of Aegilops species to drought stress during reproductive stages of development. Fundamental for Life. Soil, Crop & Environmental Sciences. Internatinal Annual Meetings. 16-19.
· Ghorbanali, M., and M. Niakan. 2005. Evaluation of drought stress effect on soluble sugars content, protein, prolin and phenolic compounds and nitrate reeducates activity in soybean cultivar Gorgan 3. Iranian Journal of Science Education. 1(2): 537-550. (In Persian).
· Grace, S.C., and B.A. Logan. 2000. Energy dissipation and radical scavenging by the plant phenyl propanoid pathway. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 355: 1499-1510.· Habibi, H., D. Mazaheri, N. Majnoon Hosseini, M.R. Chaichi, M. Tabatabai, and M. Bigdeli, 2011. Evaluation of the impact of organic sources (biological) and inorganic nitrogen (urea) on performance and secondary metabolites both wild and cultivated plant species of thyme (Thymus spp.). Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Crop and Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Tehran University.129 pp (In Persian).
· Hanstein, S.M., and H.H. Felle. 2002. CO₂-triggered chloride release from guard cells in intact faba bean leaves. Kinetics of the onset of stomatal closure. Plant Physiology. 130: 940-950.
· Hataei, Sh. 2004. The effect of drought on physiological characteristics and activity of antioxidant enzymes in different cultivars of peas. M.S. dissertation. Agricultural faculty in Karaj, Islamic Azad University of Karaj. 150 pp. (In Persian).
· Heidari Sharif-Abad, H. 2000. Plants, aridity, and drought. Research Institute of Forests and Rangelans, Tehran, Iran. 200pp. (In Persian).
· Inze, D., and M.V. Montagu. 2000 Oxidative stress in plants. T.J. International Ltd, Padstow, Carnawell. Great Britain. 321pp
· Jaleel, C.A., R. Gopi, B. Sankar, M. Gomathinayagam, and R. Panneerselvam. 2008. Differential responses in water use efficiency in two varieties of Catharanthus roseus under drought stress. Comptes Rendus Biologies. 33: 42-47.
· Jin, J., S. Ningwei, B. Jinhe, and G. Junping. 2006. Regulation of ascorbate peroxidase the transcript level is involved in tolerance to postharvest water deficit stress in the cut Rose (Rose Hybrida L.) cv. Samantha. Postharvest Biology and Technology. 40: 236-243.
· Khazaie, H.R., F. Nadjafib, and M. Bannayan. 2008. Effect of irrigation frequency and planting density on herbage biomass and oil production of thyme (Thymus vulgaris) and hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis). Industrial Crops and Products. 27: 315–321.
· Krizek, D.T., S.J. Britz, and R.M. Mirecki. 1998. Inhibitory effects of ambient levels of solar UV-A and UV-B radiation on growth of, New Red Fire Lettuce. Physiology Plant. 103: 1-7.
· Lebaschy, M.H., and E. Sharifi Ashoorabadi. 2004. Growth indices of some medicinal plants under different water stresses. Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research. 20(3): 249-261. (In Persian).
· Leng, P., H. Itamura, H. Yamamura, and M.X. Deng, 2000. Anthocyanin accumulation in apple and peach shoots during cold acclimation. Scientia Horticulturae. 83: 43-50.
· Letchamo, W., L.V. Polydeonny, N.O. Gladisheva, and T.J. Arnason. 2002 Factors affecting Echinacea quality. In: Trends in new crops and new uses (eds. Janick J, Whipkey A.). 514 pp. ASHS Press: Alexandria VA.
· Li, K.R., H.H. Wang, G. Han, Q.J. Wang, and J. Fan. 2008. Effects of brassinolide on the survival, growth and drought resistance of Robinia pseudoacacia seedlings under water-stress. New Forests. 35: 255-266.
· Meri, H.R. 2004. Physiology and yield of crops plants under drought stress. Press the Navid of Shiraz. (In Persian).
· Motsa, N.M., P. Soundy, J.M. Steyn, R.A. Learmonth, N.Mojela, and C. Teubes. 2006. Plant shoot age and temperature effects on essential oil yield and oil composition of rose-scented geranium (Pelargonium sp.) grown in South Africa. Journal of Essential Oil Research. 18: 106-110.
· Mrozikiewicz, P.M., A. Bogacz, M. Karasiewicz, P.L. Mikolajczak, M. Ozarowski, A. Seremak-Mrozikiewicz, B. Czerny, T. Bobkiewicz-Kozlowska, and E. Grzeskowiak. 2010. The effect of standardized Echinacea purpurea extracts on rat cytochrome P450 expression level. Phytomedicine. 17: 830-833.
· Navrozpoor, Gh., and P. Rezvanimqadam. 2006. The effect of irrigation intervals and plant density on yield and essential oil of black seed oil (Nigella sativa L.). Research and Development in Agriculture and Horticulture. 73:133-138. (In Persian).
· Norzad, S., A. Ahmadian, M. Moghaddam, and E. Daneshfar. 2014. Effect of drought stress on yield, yield components and essential oil in coriander treated with organic and inorganic fertilizers. Agricultural Crop Management. 16(2): 289-302. (In Persian).
· Omidbaigi, R. 2005. Production and processing of medicinal plants. Tehran University. 283 pp. (In Persian).
· Ouerghi, Z., G. Cornie, M. Roudani, A. Ayadi, and J. Bruifert. 2000. Effect of NaCl on the photosynthesis of two wheat species (Triticum durum and T. aestivum) differing in their sensitivity to salt stress. Plant Physiology. 156: 335-340.
· Ozdamir, F., M. Bor, T. Demiral, and I. Turkan. 2012. Effects of 24-epibrassinolide on seed germination, seedling growth, lipid peroxidation, proline content and anti oxidative system of rice (Oriza sativa L.) under salinity stress. Plant Growth Regulation. 42: 203-211.
· Raziqiedk, W. 2006. Effect of salinity and drought stresses on phosphatase enzyme activity in bread wheat cultivars in the early stages of seed germination. M.S. Dissertation. Tehran University. 150 pp. (In Persian).
· Rezaei Chaine, A. 2012. The effect of irrigation on the accumulation of essential oil, its composition and some physiological traits in fennel. Ph.D. Thesis Agronomy, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz. 93pp. (In Persian).
· Rezaei Chaine, A., S. Zehtab Salmasi, K. Ghasemi Golezani, and H. Dlazr. .2012. The effects on yield and yield components of fennel landraces. Journal of Sustainable Agricultural Knowledge. 22(4): 55-70. (In Persian).
· Rezapour, H., M. Haider, M. Glovi, and M. Ramroudi. 2011. Effect of drought stress and different amounts of sulfur fertilizer on yield and yield components and osmotic adjustment in medicinal plant buckwheat. Quarterly Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of Iran Research. 27(3): 396-384. (In Persian).
· Ronald, S.F., and S.K. Laima. 1999. Phenolics and cold tolerance of Brassica napus. Plant Agriculture. 1: 1-5.
· Sabra, A., F. Daayf, and S. Renault. 2012. Differential physiological and biochemical responses of three Echinacea species to salinity stress. Scientia Horticulturae. 135: 23-31.
· Shahmoradi, Sh. 2003. Effects of drought stress on qualitative and quantitative traits of soybean cultivars and advanced Layn‌Hay. Tehran University, Tehran. M.Sc. Thesis. 104pp. (In Persian).
· Siosemardeh, A., A. Ahmadi, K. Poustini, and H. Ebrahimzadeh, 2003. Stomatal and nonstomatal limitations to photosynthesis and their relationship with drought resistance in wheat cultivars. Iranian Journal of Agricultural Science. 35(1): 93-106. (In Persian).
· Sofo, A., A.C. Tuzio, B. Dichio, and C. Xiloyannis. 2005. Influence of water deficit and rewatering on the components of the ascorbate-gluta-thione cycle in four interspecific Prunus hybrids. Plant Science. 69: 403-412.
· Swamy, K.N., and S.S.R. Rao. 2009. Effect of 24-Epibrassinolide on growth, photosynthesis, and essential oil content of Pelargonium graveolens (L.) Herit. Russian Journal of Plant Physiology. 56(5): 616-620.
· Tsai, Y.L., S.Y. Chiou, K.C. Chan, and J.M. Sung. 2012. Caffeic acid derivatives, total phenols, antioxidant and antimutagenic activities of Echinacea purpurea flower extracts. LWT-Food Science and Technology. 46: 169-176.
· Wagner, G. J. 1979. Content and vacuole /extera vacuole distribution of neutral sugars, free amino acids and anthocyanin in protoplast. Plant Physiology. 68: 88-93.
· Wang, Z., and B. Huang. 2004. Physiological recovery of Kentucky bluegrass from simultaneous drought and heat stress. Crop Science. 44: 1729-1736.
· Xiao X., X. Xu, and F. Yang. 2008. Adaptive responses to progressive drought stress in two Populus cothayana populations. Silva Fennica. 42: 705-719.
· Yang, J., J. Zhang, Z. Wang, Q. Zhu, and L. Liu. 2001. Water deficit induced senescence and its relationship to the remobilization of pre-stored carbon in wheat during grain filling. Agronomy Journal. 93: 196-206.
· Yang, X. 2008. Effects of nonionic surfactant on plant growth and physiology. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of University Auburn of Alabama. 141pp.
· Zhang, M., Z. Zhai, X. Tian, L. Duan, and Z. Li. 2008. Brassinolide alleviated the adverse effect of water deficits on photosynthesis and the antioxidant of soybean (Glycine max L.). Plant Growth Regulation. 56: 257-264.
Zhuoyun, W., and L. Jia. 2016. Brassinosteroids regulate root growth, development, and symbiosis. Molecular Plant. 9(1): 86-100.