The Comparison of Theory of Mind in Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Sluggish Cognitive Tempo

Subject Areas : Clinical psychology

Maohammad Shadbafi ¹ (PhD Candidate in Psychology Tabriz University)
Elnaz Mohammadi ² (MA in Clinical of Child & Adolescent Psychology Tabriz University)
Roghayeh Abdolrahimpour ³ (MA in Clinical of Child & Adolescent Psychology Tabriz University)

Received: 2021-07-11 Accepted : 2021-07-11 Published : 2021-03-21

Keywords: Theory of Mind, attention deficit/ hyperactivity, sluggish cognitive tempo,

Abstract :

This study aimed to compare theory of mind and its levels in children with Attention Deficit/ Hyper Activity Disorder (ADHD) and Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (SCT). The study was descriptive in the frame of Casual Comparative design. Participants comprised 100 boys (50 ADHD and 50 SCT) from elementary schools in Tabriz in the 1398-1399 academic year, which were selected through a screening method using the Child Behavior Rating Scale (Swanson, Nolan, & Pelham, 1980) and the Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Scale (Penny, Waschbusch, Klein, Corkum, & Eskes, 2009).Then, Theory of Mind Test (Muris, et al, 1999)  was performed on samples to measure theory of mind. Data was analyzed by multivariate analysis of variance. The results showed that there is a significant difference between the two groups in theory of mind. So that children with SCT had poorer performances in theory of mind in all three levels than children with ADHD. Based on the findings of this study, it seems that since children with SCT have little interest in social interactions and suffer from attention problems simultaneously, they have poorer performances in theory of mind than children with ADHD.

References:

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5®). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.

Barkley, R. A. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): Current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 117-125.

Barkley, R. A. (2016). Sluggish cognitive tempo: A (misnamed) second attention disorder? Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(3), 157-158

Bauermeister, J. J., Barkley, R. A., Bauermeister, J. A., Martínez, J. V., & McBurnett, K. (2012). Validity of the sluggish cognitive tempo, inattention, and hyperactivity symptom dimensions: Neuropsychological and psychosocial correlates. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(5), 683-697.

Becker, S. P. (2013). Topical review: Sluggish cognitive tempo: Research findings and relevance for pediatric psychology. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 38(10), 1051-1057.

Becker, S. P. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo and peer functioning in school-aged children: A six-month longitudinal study. Psychiatry Resarch, 217(1-2), 72-78.

Becker, S. P., & Barkley, R. A. (2018). Sluggish cognitive tempo. In Oxford textbook of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, (pp.147-153(. New York: Oxford University Press.

Becker, S. P., & Langberg, J. M. (2014). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo dimensions in relation to executive functioning in adolescents with ADHD. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 45(1), 1-11.

Becker, S. P., & Willcutt, E. G. (2019). Advancing the study of sluggish cognitive tempo via DSM, RDoC, and hierarchical models of psychopathology. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 28(5), 603-613.

Becker, S. P., Garner, A. A., Tamm, L., Antonini, T. N., & Epstein, J. N. (2019). Honing in on the social difficulties associated with sluggish cognitive tempo in children: Withdrawal, peer ignoring, and low engagement. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 48(2), 228-237.

Becker, S. P., Leopold, D. R., Burns, G. L., Jarrett, M. A., Langberg, J. M., Marshall, S. A., ... & Willcutt, E. G. (2016). The internal, external, and diagnostic validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: A meta-analysis and critical review. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 55(3), 163-178.

Becker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., & Joyce, A. M. (2015). The Child Concentration Inventory (CCI): Initial validation of a child self-report measure of sluggish cognitive tempo. Psychological Assessment, 27(3), 1037.

Becker, S. P., Luebbe, A. M., Fite, P. J., Stoppelbein, L., & Greening, L. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo in psychiatrically hospitalized children: Factor structure and relations to internalizing symptoms, social problems, and observed behavioral dysregulation. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 49-62.

Berenguer Forner, C., Roselló, B., Baixauli Fortea, I., García Castellar, R., Colomer Diago, C., & Miranda, A. (2017). ADHD Symptoms and peer problems: Mediation of executive function and theory of mind. Psicothema, 29(4), 514-519.

Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2016). Meta-analysis of social cognition in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): comparison with healthy controls and autistic spectrum disorder. Psychological Medicine, 46(4), 699-716.

Bussing, R., Fernandez, M., Harwood, M., Hou, W., Garvan, C. W., Eyberg, S. M., & Swanson, J. M. (2008). Parent and teacher SNAP-IV ratings of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: psychometric properties and normative ratings from a school district sample. Assessment, 15(3), 317-328.

Caputi, M., & Schoenborn, H. (2018). Theory of mind and internalizing symptoms during middle childhood and early adolescence: The mediating role of coping strategies. Cogent Psychology, 5(1), Article 1487270.

Dan, O., & Raz, S. (2018). Response patterns to emotional faces among adolescents diagnosed with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(12), 1123-1130.

Deschamps, P., Munsters, N., Kenemans, L., Schutter, D., & Matthys, W. (2014). Facial mimicry in 6–7 year old children with disruptive behavior disorder and ADHD. PLoS One, 9(1), 1-7.

Farzaneh, A., Alizadeh, H., & Kazemi, F. (2019). The effectiveness of facial expressions of the basic emotions training on early conduct disorder. Journal of Developmental Psychology: Iranian Psychologists, 16(62), 163-174. [In Persian].

Ferguson, F. J., & Austin, E. J. (2010). Associations of trait and ability emotional intelligence with performance on Theory of Mind tasks in an adult sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 49(5), 414-418.

Ferretti, N. M., King, S. L., Hilton, D. C., Rondon, A. T., & Jarrett, M. A. (2019). Social functioning in youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 92(1), 29-35.

Flannery, A. J., Becker, S. P., & Luebbe, A. M. (2016). Does emotion dysregulation mediate the association between sluggish cognitive tempo and college students’ social impairment? Journal of Attention Disorders, 20(9), 802-812.

Garner, A. A., Marceaux, J. C., Mrug, S., Patterson, C., & Hodgens, B. (2010). Dimensions and correlates of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(8), 1097-1107.

Ghamarani, A., & Alborzi, S., & Khayer, M. (2006). Evaluation of validity and validity of mind theory test in a group of mentally retarded and normal students in Shiraz. Journal of Psychology, 10(2), 181-199. [In Persian].

Goth-Owens, T. L., Martinez-Torteya, C., Martel, M. M., & Nigg, J. T. (2010). Processing speed weakness in children and adolescents with non-hyperactive but inattentive ADHD (ADD). Child Neuropsychology, 16(6), 577-591.

Khanjani, Z., Mohammadi, E., & Shadbafi, M. (2020). The prediction of children's accident proneness based on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and sluggish cognitive tempo symptoms: the mediating role of sensitivity to reward and punishment. Quarterly Journal of Child Mental Health, 7(1), 44-56. [In Persian].

Larsson, H., Dilshad, R., Lichtenstein, P., & Barker, E. D. (2011). Developmental trajectories of DSM‐IV symptoms of attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Genetic effects, family risk and associated psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(9), 954-963.

Lee, S., Burns, G. L., & Becker, S. P. (2017). Can sluggish cognitive tempo be distinguished from ADHD inattention in very young children? Evidence from a sample of Korean preschool children. Journal of Attention Disorders, 21(8), 623-631.

Lee, S., Burns, G. L., & Becker, S. P. (2018). Toward establishing the transcultural validity of sluggish cognitive tempo: Evidence from a sample of South Korean children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 47(1), 61-68.

Maoz, H., Gvirts, H. Z., Sheffer, M., & Bloch, Y. (2019). Theory of Mind and empathy in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23(11), 1331-1338.

Marshall, S. A., Evans, S. W., Eiraldi, R. B., Becker, S. P., & Power, T. J. (2014). Social and academic impairment in youth with ADHD, predominately inattentive type and sluggish cognitive tempo. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 77-90.

Mary, A., Slama, H., Mousty, P., Massat, I., Capiau, T., Drabs, V., & Peigneux, P. (2016). Executive and attentional contributions to Theory of Mind deficit in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Neuropsychology, 22(3), 345-365.

Mashhadi, A., Hashemi Juzdani, M., & Hashemi Borzabadi, H. (2011). Theory of Mind Development and its Relation to Social Skills in Children and Adolescence with Visual Impairment. Journal of Developmental Psychology: Iranian Psychologists, 7(27), 219-230. [In Persian].

McBurnett, K., Villodas, M., Burns, G. L., Hinshaw, S. P., Beaulieu, A., & Pfiffner, L. J. (2014). Structure and validity of sluggish cognitive tempo using an expanded item pool in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 37-48.

Mikami, A. Y., Huang-Pollock, C. L., Pfiffner, L. J., McBurnett, K., & Hangai, D. (2007). Social skills differences among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder types in a chat room assessment task. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35(4), 509-521.

Miranda, A., Berenguer, C., Roselló, B., Baixauli, I., & Colomer, C. (2017). Social cognition in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Associations with executive functions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 1035, 1-13.

Mrug, S., Molina, B. S., Hoza, B., Gerdes, A. C., Hinshaw, S. P., Hechtman, L., & Arnold, L. E. (2012). Peer rejection and friendships in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Contributions to long-term outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(6), 1013-1026.

Mueller, A. K., Tucha, L., Koerts, J., Groen, Y., Lange, K. W., & Tucha, O. (2014). Sluggish cognitive tempo and its neurocognitive, social and emotive correlates: a systematic review of the current literature. Journal of Molecular Psychiatry, 2(1), 1-13.

Muris, P., Steerneman, P., Meesters, C., Merckelbach, H., Horselenberg, R., van den Hogen, T., & van Dongen, L. (1999). The TOM test: A new instrument for assessing theory of mind in normal children and children with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(1), 67-80.

Özbaran, B., Kalyoncu, T., & Köse, S. (2018). Theory of mind and emotion regulation difficulties in children with ADHD. Psychiatry Research, 270, 117-122.

Penny, A. M., Waschbusch, D. A., Klein, R. M., Corkum, P., & Eskes, G. (2009). Developing a measure of sluggish cognitive tempo for children: content validity, factor structure, and reliability. Psychological Assessment, 21(3), 380-389.

Peterson, C., Slaughter, V., Moore, C., & Wellman, H. M. (2016). Peer social skills and theory of mind in children with autism, deafness, or typical development. Developmental Psychology, 52(1), 46-57.

Sadrosadat, S. J., Houshyari, Z., Zamani, R., & Sadrosadat, L. (2008). Determinatio of psychometrics index of SNAP-IV Rating Scale in parents execution. Archives of Rehabilitation, 8(4), 59-65. [In Persian].

Saeedi, M. T. S., Noorazar, G., Bafandeh, H., Taheri, M., & Farhang, S. (2014). Theory of mind in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder compared to controls. Journal of Research in Clinical Medicine, 2(3), 99-104.

Şahin, B., Bozkurt, A., Usta, M. B., Aydın, M., Çobanoğlu, C., & Karabekiroğlu, K. (2019). Theory of mind: Development, neurobiology, related areas and neurodevelopmental disorders. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 11(1), 24-41.

Şencan, B. (2019). Theory of mind in major depressive disorder. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 11(1), 42-54.

Serrano, V. J., Owens, J. S., & Hallowell, B. (2018). Where children with ADHD direct visual attention during emotion knowledge tasks: relationships to accuracy, response time, and ADHD symptoms. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(8), 752-763.

Stenseng, F., Belsky, J., Skalicka, V., & Wichstrøm, L. (2016). Peer rejection and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: Reciprocal relations through ages 4, 6, and 8. Child Development, 87(2), 365-373.

Swanson, J. M., Nolan, W. J., & Pelham, W. E. (1981). A parent-teacher rating scale for operationalizing DSM III symptoms of attention deficit disorder. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Irvine.

Uekermann, J., Kraemer, M., Abdel-Hamid, M., Schimmelmann, B. G., Hebebrand, J., Daum, I., ... & Kis, B. (2010). Social cognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(5), 734-743.

Washburn, D., Wilson, G., Roes, M., Rnic, K., & Harkness, K. L. (2016). Theory of mind in social anxiety disorder, depression, and comorbid conditions. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 37, 71-77.

Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory-of-mind development: the truth about false belief. Child development, 72(3), 655-684.

Willcutt, E. G., Chhabildas, N., Kinnear, M., DeFries, J. C., Olson, R. K., Leopold, D. R., ... & Pennington, B. F. (2014). The internal and external validity of sluggish cognitive tempo and its relation with DSM–IV ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 42(1), 21-35.

Zablotsky, B., Black, L. I., Maenner, M. J., Schieve, L. A., Danielson, M. L., Bitsko, R. H., ... & Boyle, C. A. (2019). Prevalence and Trends of Developmental Disabilities among Children in the United States: 2009–2017. Pediatrics, 144(4), e20190811.