A Mixed Methods Approach to Investigating Self-efficacy and Tolerance of Ambiguity: A Case of Writing Ability
الموضوعات : English Language Teaching
Fatemeh Ghanbarbeheshti
1
,
Omid Pourkalhor
2
,
Atefeh Nasrollahi Mouziraji
3
1 - Department of English Language, Am.C., Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
2 - Department of English Language, To.C., Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
3 - Department of English Language, Am.C., Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
الکلمات المفتاحية: academic writing, mixed methods research, self-efficacy, tolerance of ambiguity,
ملخص المقالة :
Investigating the combined effect of psychological constructs on learners’ writing accuracy and fluency has remained underexplored. The urgent shift to online education, particularly self-efficacy or tolerance of ambiguity has been demanding for teachers, students, and others involved in education. Accordingly, adopting a mixed methods approach, this study aimed to address this gap by examining how self-efficacy and tolerance of ambiguity influence writing performance among Iranian learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). To that end, a total of 75 upper-intermediate EFL learners purposively sampled from a branch of Islamic Azad University were assigned to three groups: two experimental groups receiving 12 weeks of targeted strategy trainings (i.e., self-efficacy and tolerance of ambiguity groups), and a control group receiving the conventional instruction. Semi-structured interviews with 11 purposively selected EFL learners complemented quantitative data to explore the experiential perspectives. Data were collected through validated questionnaires (i.e., self-efficacy questionnaire and tolerance of ambiguity strategies scale), timed writing tasks, and interviews. ANCOVA analyses, controlling for Enlgish proficiency as a covariate, revealed statistically significant effects. The results confirmed that self-efficacy strategies markedly enhanced writing accuracy, while tolerance of ambiguity training substantially improved fluency. Qualitative insights further underscored their interdependence, with self-efficacy fostering resilience and tolerance of ambiguity enabling adaptive experimentation. The findings are useful in advancing theoretical frameworks and integrating both constructs into EFL pedagogy to enhance writing accuracy and fluency. Educators should prioritize interventions that leverage these psychological strategies, such as structured goal-setting and iterative revisions, to address the cognitive and affective demands of second language (L2) writing.
Aben, J. E., Timmermans, A. C., Dingyloudi, F., Lara, M. M., & Strijbos, J. (2022). What influences students’ peer-feedback uptake? Relations between error tolerance, feedback tolerance, writing self-efficacy, perceived language skills and peer-feedback processing. Learning and Individual Differences, 97, 102175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2022.102175
Akhter, S., Lin, C., Guo, F., & Ahmed, K. (2025). Self-efficacy of students as a mediator between entrepreneurial learning engagement and EFL learners’ performance towards writing skill. Journal of Posthumanism, 5(2), 140–149. https://doi.org/10.63332/joph.v5i2.411
Allen, D. (2004). Oxford placement test. Oxford University Press.
Amalia, N. A., Syahid, A., & Mirza, A. A. (2024). The effect of reflective journaling on writing skills of English as a foreign language: A quasi-experimental study. Journal on Education, 6(2), 12680–12693. https://doi.org/10.31004/joe.v6i2.5124
Atai, M. R., & Zaré Alanagh, A. Z. (2017). Task condition and EFL learners’ individual differences: The mediation of tolerance of ambiguity and self-efficacy. Journal of Teaching Language Skills, 35(4), 71–102. https://doi.org/10.22099/jtls.2017.3973
Bagheri, R., & Mohammadi Yeganeh, R. (2024). The impact of automated writing evaluation on Iranian EFL learners essay writing: A mixed‐methods study. Journal of Mixed Methods Studies in English Language Teaching, 1(1), 23. https://doi.org/10.71873/mslt.2024.1121001
Bagheri, M., & Rassaei, E. (2021). The effects of two forms of written corrective feedback and ambiguity tolerance on EFL learners’ writing accuracy. English Teaching & Learning, 46(1), 19–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42321-021-00082-6
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
Caverzagie, K. J., Goldenberg, M. G., & Hall, J. M. (2019). Psychology and learning: The role of the clinical learning environment. Medical Teacher, 41(4), 375–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142159x.2019.1567910
Creswell, J.W. (2022). A concise introduction to mixed methods research. Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford university press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. Routledge.
Ely, C. M. (1995). Tolerance of ambiguity and the teaching of ESL. In J. M. Reid (Ed.), Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom (pp. 87–95). Heinle & Heinle.
Fathi, J., Pawlak, M., & Hejazi, S. Y. (2024). Exploring the roles of ideal L2 writing self, growth L2 writing mindset, and L2 writing grit in L2 writing achievement among EFL learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 4, 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0272263124000536
Gaumer-Erickson, A. S., Soukup, J. H., Noonan, P. M., & McGurn, L. (2018). Assertiveness formative questionnaire. In P. M. Noonan & A. S. G. Erickson (Eds.), The skills that matter: Teaching interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies in any classroom (pp. 181–182). Corwin.
Graham, S., & Harris, K. R. (2009). Evidence-based writing practices: Drawing recommendations from multiple sources. In British Psychological Society eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909x421928
Graham, S., Ng, C., Hebert, M., Santangelo, T., Aitken, A. A., Camping, A., & Nusrat, A. (2025). Can teaching writing enhance students’ writing self-efficacy: A meta-analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 117(4), 559–581. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000923
Ghelichli, Y., Seyyedrezaei, S. H., Barani, G., & Mazandarani, O. (2020). The mediating role of self-regulation between student engagement and motivation among Iranian EFL learners: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Modern Research in English Language Studies, 9(1), 179-200. https://doi.org/10.30479/jmrels.2020.13689.1679
Graves, D. H. (1984). A researcher learns to write: Selected Articles and Monographs. Heinemann Educational Publishers.
Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Erlbaum.
Hemmler, Y. M., & Ifenthaler, D. (2024). Self-regulated learning strategies in continuing education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 45, 100629. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2024.100629
Khodabandeh, F. (2024). Analyzing the influence of ambiguity tolerance on grammar acquisition in EFL learners across Face-to-Face, blended, and flipped learning environments. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 53(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-024-10096-3
Kormos, J., & Dörnyei, Z. (2004). The interaction of linguistic and motivational variables in second language task performance. Zeitschrift Für Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 9(2). https://zif.tujournals.ulb.tu-darmstadt.de/article/id/2749/
Le, T. T., & Hua, H. H. (2024). Empowering language learners. FOSTER Journal of English Language Teaching, 5(2), 90–101. https://doi.org/10.24256/foster-jelt.v5i2.163
Lin, Y., Niu, R., & Yu, Z. (2023). Roles of ambiguity tolerance and learning effectiveness: Structural equation modeling evidence from EFL students’ perceptions of factors influencing peer collaboration. Language Teaching Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688231216201
Namaziandost, E., Çakmak, F., & Ashkani, P. (2025). How do you feel? Unmasking ambiguity tolerance, learning adaptability, self-management, and learning outcomes in gamification vs. ludicization in foreign language learning. Computers in Human Behavior Reports, 18, 100651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100651
Pishghadam, R., Derakhshan, A., Zhaleh, K., & Al-Obaydi, L. H. (2021). Students’ willingness to attend EFL classes with respect to teachers credibility, stroke, and success: A cross-cultural study of Iranian and Iraqi students perceptions. Current Psychology, 42(5), 4065–4079. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01738-z
Qin, L., & Zhang, L. J. (2019). English as a foreign language writers metacognitive strategy knowledge of writing and their writing performance in multimedia environments. Journal of Writing Research, 11(vol. 11 issue 2), 393–413. https://doi.org/10.17239/jowr-2019.11.02.06
Rashid, Z. F., Ghonsooly, B., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2023). Examining merits and demerits of master s virtual programs of English from students perspectives in light of motivation and self-efficacy. Journal of Contemporary Language Research, 2(2), 99–108. https://doi.org/10.58803/jclr.v2i2.25
Ruffinelli, A., De La Hoz, S., & Álvarez, C. (2020). Practicum tutorials in initial teacher training: conditions, strategies, and effects of reflective practice. Reflective Practice, 21(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/14623943.2019.1708712
Shaddad, A. R. E., & Jember, B. (2024). A step toward effective language learning: An insight into the impacts of feedback-supported tasks and peer-work activities on learners’ engagement, self-esteem, and language growth. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 9, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-024-00261-5
Stoycheva, K. (2024). Tolerance of ambiguity and the creative action: To engage and endure. The Journal of Creative Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.1506
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.
Szota, M., Rogowska, A. M., Kwaśnicka, A., & Chilicka-Hebel, K. (2024). The indirect effect of future anxiety on the relationship between self-efficacy and depression in a convenience sample of adults: Revisiting social cognitive theory. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(16), 4897. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164897
Teng, L. S. (2022). Self-regulated learning and language learning strategies. In English language education (pp. 15–30). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-99520-1_2
Teng, L. S., & Zhang, L. J. (2019). Empowering learners in the second/foreign language classroom: Can self-regulated learning strategies-based writing instruction make a difference? Journal of Second Language Writing, 48, 100701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2019.100701
Teng, M. F., & Wang, C. (2022). Assessing academic writing self‐efficacy belief and writing performance in a foreign language context. Foreign Language Annals, 56(1), 144–169. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12638
Teng, M. F., & Zhang, Y. (2023). Assessing self-regulated writing strategies, self-efficacy, task complexity, and performance in English academic writing. Assessing Writing, 57, 100728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100728
Theobald, M. (2021). Self-regulated learning training programs enhance university students academic performance, self-regulated learning strategies, and motivation: A meta-analysis. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 66, 101976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2021.101976
University of Michigan. (2019). Writing assessment rubric. Language Assessment Division.
Wu, J., & Ellis, R. (2023). The effect of pre-task planning on computer-based second language writing. Language Teaching Research, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688231197575
Xue, Y. (2024). Mediating effect of ambiguity tolerance in automated writing evaluation research model. American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 9(2), 49–77. https://doi.org/10.55284/ajssh.v9i2.1178
Yang, Y., Zheng, Z., Wang, J., & Sun, D. (2024). The relationships of motivation and self-regulation to students’ cognitive presence and empowerment in online learning environment. Education and Information Technologies, 29, 23391–23414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12674-3
Zhang, Q. (2024). Mediation/moderation effects of engagement, foreign language enjoyment, and ambiguity tolerance in metaverse-based foreign language learning. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21, 54. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00484-z
Zhan, Y., & Teng, M. F. (2025). Assessing English writing self-efficacy beliefs, self-regulation, and performance through asynchronous computer-mediated feedback and face-to-face peer feedback. Educational Assessment, 30(1), 4–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2025.2452442
Zhang, J., & Zhang, L. J. (2024). Profiling L2 students’ writing self-efficacy and its relationship with their writing strategies for self-regulated learning. System, 122, 103253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103253
Zhang, R., & Zou, D. (2022). Self-regulated second language learning: A review of types and benefits of strategies, modes of teacher support, and pedagogical implications. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 37(4), 720–765. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2022.2055081
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016
