Exploring the Pragmatic Features of Incitement in Political Texts: A Focus on the Russia-Ukraine Conflict
الموضوعات : نکرش جدید در یادگیری زبان انکلیسیSamir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen 1 , Atefesadat Mirsaeedi 2 , Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal 3 , Sahar Najarzadegan 4
1 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
2 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
3 - Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University, Iraq
4 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
الکلمات المفتاحية: pragmatics, incitement, directive speech acts, Russia-Ukraine war, political linguistics,
ملخص المقالة :
The phenomenon of incitement in political discourse was examined pragmatically in the Russia-Ukraine crisis context in this study. This study concentrates on directive speech acts to determine how incitement functions as illocutionary or perlocutionary and what methods are used to formulate both direct and indirect provocation. By applying speech act theory and political linguistics, this study explains how provocation is used to motivate action, shapes public opinion, and shapes group behavior. This study confirms that euphemisms, metaphors, and emotional appeals increase incitement in speeches by high-ranking politicians such as U.S. President Joe Biden, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, and Russian President Vladimir Putin. The research explores how the sociopolitical and digital environment amplifies political speech. It highlights the rise of indirect incitement over digital communication, where coded language and algorithm-driven dissemination allow political actors to avoid accountability while mobilizing. The research investigated these interactions to shed light on the ethical and social consequences of incitement, as well as its role in the formation of narratives surrounding aggression, solidarity, and identity amid conflict. This study highlights the significance of grasping the linguistic and rhetorical aspects of political discourse, particularly in narratives influenced by conflict, providing valuable insights for linguists, political analysts, educators, and policymakers regarding the pragmatic characteristics and strategies associated with incitement, thereby fostering critical thinking and enhancing political communication.
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Research Paper
| Exploring the Pragmatic Features of Incitement in Political Texts: A Focus on the Russia-Ukraine Conflict Samir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen1, AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi2*, Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal3, Sahar Najarzadegan4 1Ph.D. Candidate, Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 2Assistant Professor, Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran 3Assistant Professor, Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University, Iraq abbaslutfi@uomustansiriyah.edu.iq 4Assistant Professor, Department of English Languages, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran |
Language is a powerful tool in political communication, enabling leaders to incite actions, influence beliefs, and shape public opinion. Political discourse not only serves as a medium of information exchange but also as a mechanism for shaping perceptions, fostering unity, and mobilizing communities. Within the context of the Russia-Ukraine war, political rhetoric has played a pivotal role in rallying domestic and international support, motivating resistance against aggression, and constructing global narratives. This ongoing conflict underscores the significance of language in political maneuvering and highlights its dual function as a tool for both collaboration and confrontation (Fairclough, 2010; Wodak & Forchtner, 2017).
Pragmatics, a branch of linguistics that examines language use in context, provides a crucial framework for analyzing political communication. According to Austin (1962) and Searle (1969), speech acts are utterances that perform actions rather than merely conveying information. Among these, the speech act of incitement stands out as a particularly potent force in political discourse. Incitement operates within the realm of directive speech acts, compelling audiences toward specific actions or emotions. Its effectiveness often hinges on its ability to appeal to shared values, emotions, and cultural identities, as highlighted by recent research (van Dijk, 2015; Wodak, 2021).
In the context of the Russia-Ukraine war, incitement has been used to frame the conflict in terms of moral imperatives and existential threats. Speeches by global leaders, such as U.S. President Joe Biden and Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, often deploy rhetorical strategies that align their audiences with specific actions, such as providing military aid or supporting sanctions against Russia (Chilton, 2017; Pupcenoks et al., 2024). These speeches frequently employ emotional appeals, such as fear, pride, and solidarity, to galvanize public support and sustain international alliances (Fairclough, 2015; Charteris-Black, 2021).
Emerging studies on political linguistics further emphasize the role of contextual factors in shaping the impact of incitement. Research by Moskvina (2022) and Hart (2020) highlights how geopolitical tensions, historical grievances, and media narratives amplify the persuasive power of political speeches. For instance, indirect incitement, which relies on ambiguity and plausible deniability, has been a recurring theme in the speeches of Russian President Vladimir Putin. By framing military actions as "necessary defensive measures," these speeches seek to justify aggression while deflecting blame (Prokhorov, 2019; Wodak, 2021).
Moreover, the pragmatic features of incitement are often intertwined with other speech acts, such as assertives, expressives, and commissives. Recent scholarship (Blommaert, 2018; Verschueren, 2020) suggests that the effectiveness of incitement is enhanced when it is embedded within broader narratives of justice, survival, and collective identity. For example, Zelensky’s appeals to historical alliances and democratic values resonate strongly with Western audiences, reinforcing the urgency of collective action against authoritarianism (Charteris-Black, 2021; Pupcenoks et al., 2024).
Furthermore, digital platforms have transformed the landscape of political incitement. The rapid dissemination of speeches and statements via social media amplifies their reach and impact, creating new opportunities for indirect incitement. Leaders now employ algorithms and viral messaging to subtly influence public opinion, often avoiding explicit language while relying on suggestive or coded rhetoric. Recent studies (Gillespie, 2020; Zimdars, 2021) explore how these digital dynamics reshape the strategies and ethical considerations of political discourse.
In summary, the speech act of incitement represents a critical intersection of pragmatics and political communication, particularly in the context of the Russia-Ukraine war. By compelling audiences toward specific actions or emotions, incitement serves as a powerful mechanism for influencing public opinion and shaping the trajectory of conflict. This study aims to analyze the pragmatic features and rhetorical strategies that define incitement, contributing to a deeper understanding of its role in contemporary political discourse. The integration of recent scholarly insights (2010–2024) enhances the study's relevance, offering a comprehensive examination of incitement as a linguistic and political phenomenon.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theoretical Background
The roots of pragmatics can be traced to Austin’s (1962) groundbreaking work on speech act theory, which introduced the classification of utterances into locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. This framework was pivotal in understanding how language can perform actions rather than merely convey information. Searle (1969) further expanded on these concepts, introducing the notion of felicity conditions—contextual requirements that determine the success of speech acts. Within this framework, incitement is identified as a directive speech act, designed to influence the behavior of the hearer. Directive acts, as Searle (1979) elaborates, include commands, requests, and suggestions, all of which seek to prompt action.
Recent advancements in pragmatics (Blommaert, 2018; Verschueren, 2020) have emphasized the dynamic interplay between language, context, and social power. Hart (2020) explores how directive acts, including incitement, are shaped by sociopolitical factors and audience expectations. For example, in the Russia-Ukraine war, the pragmatic realization of incitement often involves a blend of direct and indirect strategies to appeal to diverse audiences (Wodak, 2021; Moskvina, 2022). This theoretical foundation underscores the need for a nuanced analysis of incitement as a complex, context-sensitive phenomenon.
Empirical Background
Research on political linguistics highlights the strategic manipulation of language to achieve political objectives. Van Dijk (1997) and Fairclough (2001) laid the groundwork for understanding how political discourse establishes power dynamics, shapes ideologies, and influences social behavior. Building on this foundation, recent studies (Chilton, 2017; Wodak, 2021) have examined the role of language in constructing political realities, particularly during conflicts.
In the context of the Russia-Ukraine war, incitement has emerged as a recurrent theme in political speeches. Zelensky’s appeals to democratic values and collective security, for instance, have been analyzed as efforts to galvanize international support (Pupcenoks et al., 2024). Similarly, Putin’s framing of military actions as defensive measures highlights the use of language to justify aggression and shape domestic perceptions (Prokhorov, 2019). These studies demonstrate that incitement is not merely about issuing directives but also about constructing narratives that align with political goals. Moreover, empirical analyses have identified specific linguistic features that characterize incitement in political discourse. Research by Charteris-Black (2021) and Hart (2020) reveals how rhetorical devices such as metaphors, repetition, and evaluative language enhance the persuasive impact of incitement. These findings underscore the importance of examining both the linguistic and contextual dimensions of political speeches to understand their pragmatic effects.
Gap in the Literature
Despite the extensive body of research on speech acts and political discourse, the pragmatic features of incitement remain underexplored. Existing studies often focus on broad categories of directive acts without delving into the specific mechanisms that distinguish incitement. Furthermore, the distinction between incitement as an illocutionary versus a perlocutionary act has not been thoroughly investigated. While illocutionary acts achieve their intended effect through the act of uttering, perlocutionary acts depend on the subsequent actions or emotional responses of the audience (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969). This distinction is particularly relevant in political contexts, where leaders often employ indirect strategies to maintain plausible deniability (Moskvina, 2022; Wodak, 2021). Another gap lies in the analysis of direct versus indirect incitement. Indirect incitement, which relies on ambiguity and subtle cues, is a common strategy in political discourse but has received limited scholarly attention (Hart, 2020). Understanding how these forms of incitement operate and interact with broader narratives remains a critical area for future research.
The Problem
The central problem addressed in this study is the lack of clarity regarding the pragmatic features of incitement in political texts. This includes its classification as an illocutionary or perlocutionary act, as well as the strategies employed to convey direct and indirect incitement. The complexity of incitement lies in its dual nature: as an illocutionary act, it seeks to perform the act of inciting through language alone, while as a perlocutionary act, it relies on the audience’s reaction to fulfill its purpose (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969). Understanding these features is crucial for comprehending how political leaders influence behavior and public opinion during conflicts. In the Russia-Ukraine war, for example, speeches by leaders on both sides have employed incitement to mobilize support, justify actions, and shape international perceptions (Charteris-Black, 2021; Pupcenoks et al., 2024). By analyzing the pragmatic and rhetorical dimensions of incitement, this study aims to contribute to a deeper understanding of its role in political discourse and its implications for social and political dynamics.
Objectives of the Study
To identify the pragmatic features of incitement in political texts, with a specific focus on the Russia-Ukraine war.
To determine whether incitement functions predominantly as an illocutionary or perlocutionary act, examining the implications of this distinction.
To analyze the linguistic mechanisms, including rhetorical devices and syntactic structures, used to convey direct and indirect incitement.
To explore the role of contextual factors, such as audience demographics and geopolitical tensions, in shaping the effectiveness of incitement.
Research Questions and Null Hypotheses
RQ1: What are the pragmatic features of the incitement speech act in political texts, particularly during the Russia-Ukraine war?
RQ2: Which form of incitement—direct or indirect—is predominantly used by politicians in this context?
H01: There are no significant pragmatic features distinguishing direct and indirect incitement in political texts.
H2: Incitement functions equally as an illocutionary and perlocutionary act across political contexts.
Significance of the Study
This research holds significant value for linguists, political analysts, educators, and policymakers, as it advances the understanding of how language functions as a tool for influencing political actions and decisions, particularly in conflict-driven discourse. By examining the pragmatic strategies used in political speeches, the study sheds light on the ethical and social implications of incitement, providing a basis for evaluating the role of rhetoric in shaping public opinion.
The importance of language in political discourse has been a growing area of scholarly interest, particularly between 2010 and 2024, with numerous studies highlighting the profound impact of rhetoric on public perception and policy decisions. For example, Chilton (2017) underscores the critical role of linguistic strategies in constructing political realities, while Wodak (2020) demonstrates how narratives and framing influence societal attitudes toward contentious issues. Similarly, Fairclough (2015) emphasizes the interplay between language and power, arguing that political discourse often reinforces or challenges existing power structures.
For linguists, this study contributes to the broader field of speech act theory, particularly in understanding the pragmatic features and functions of incitement. Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) laid the foundational framework for speech act theory, exploring how utterances perform actions. Building on their work, recent research has delved into the complexities of illocutionary and perlocutionary acts in political discourse. For instance, Trosborg (2010) examines the pragmatic functions of directives in political speeches, while Cap (2018) investigates the role of legitimization and coercion in international political rhetoric. This study further extends these discussions by analyzing the pragmatic strategies employed in the context of the Russia-Ukraine war, providing a contemporary lens to explore the ethical and societal dimensions of incitement.
Political analysts can leverage the findings of this research to better understand the mechanisms of political communication and their impact on international relations. Studies such as those by van Dijk (2013) and Lakoff (2016) highlight how metaphors and framing devices shape public opinion and political decision-making. The use of emotionally charged language, as demonstrated in the speeches of world leaders during the Russia-Ukraine conflict, has been pivotal in mobilizing support, justifying actions, and delegitimizing opponents. For example, Wilson (2022) analyzes how rhetorical strategies during the conflict have been used to construct narratives of victimhood and aggression, while Kress and van Leeuwen (2020) explore the semiotic resources employed in visual and verbal communication to amplify political messages.
Educators and curriculum developers may use the findings of this study to enhance the teaching of pragmatics, critical thinking, and media literacy. The integration of pragmatic analysis into educational frameworks has been shown to foster students' ability to critically evaluate language use in media and political contexts. For example, Goddard and Patterson (2013) emphasize the importance of teaching language awareness to develop critical thinking skills, while Mercer (2019) advocates for dialogic teaching approaches that encourage active engagement with complex texts. By incorporating insights from this study, educators can design curricula that equip students with the tools to deconstruct political rhetoric, assess its implications, and engage in informed civic discourse.
Lastly, the study's focus on the Russia-Ukraine war provides timely and relevant insights into the role of language in contemporary geopolitical conflicts. Scholars such as Miskimmon et al. (2014) have explored the concept of strategic narratives, examining how states craft and disseminate stories to influence international audiences. The use of language as a tool for persuasion and manipulation during the Russia-Ukraine conflict has been a recurring theme in recent research. For example, Hutchings and Szostek (2023) discuss the role of disinformation and propaganda in shaping perceptions of the war, while Stepanova (2021) analyzes the linguistic strategies employed in cyber and information warfare. These findings underscore the significance of rhetoric in constructing national identities, justifying military interventions, and shaping global responses to conflict.
In conclusion, this study holds substantial interdisciplinary relevance, offering valuable insights for linguists, political analysts, educators, and policymakers. By examining the pragmatic strategies used in political speeches, it illuminates the ethical and social implications of incitement, contributing to the broader understanding of language as a powerful tool in political communication. Through its focus on the Russia-Ukraine war, the research provides a timely exploration of how rhetoric shapes public opinion and influences geopolitical dynamics, offering a foundation for future studies and practical applications in education, policy-making, and international relations.
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study employs a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine the pragmatic features of incitement in political texts. This approach allows for a comprehensive analysis by combining the depth of qualitative insights with the objectivity of quantitative data. The qualitative aspect focuses on identifying and interpreting the linguistic strategies and rhetorical devices used in incitement, while the quantitative analysis measures the frequency and distribution of these features across the corpus.
Corpus of the Study
The corpus consists of speeches by key political figures, including U.S. President Joe Biden, Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky, Russian President Vladimir Putin, and NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg. These speeches, delivered during the Russia-Ukraine conflict (2022–2024), were selected based on their relevance to the research questions and their prominence in shaping public discourse. The selection criteria included speeches that explicitly or implicitly aimed to incite actions, influence opinions, or mobilize support. Transcripts were obtained from official government websites, reputable media outlets, and archival databases to ensure authenticity and reliability.
Instruments
Analytical Framework: The study employs speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1969) as its primary analytical framework. This includes the concepts of locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts, as well as felicity conditions that determine the effectiveness of speech acts.
Software Tools: NVivo is used for qualitative coding and thematic analysis, enabling the identification of linguistic patterns and rhetorical strategies. SPSS is utilized for statistical analysis, providing quantitative insights into the frequency and distribution of pragmatic features.
Model of the Study
The study adopts a pragmatic model focusing on the realization of speech acts, particularly incitement, in political discourse. This model integrates the following components:
Speech Act Analysis: Identifying directive speech acts that function as incitement.
Felicity Conditions: Evaluating the contextual factors that determine the success of incitement.
Linguistic Strategies: Analyzing syntactic, semantic, and rhetorical devices used to convey direct and indirect incitement.
Contextual Factors: Considering the geopolitical and sociocultural context of the speeches.
Data Collection Procedures
The data collection process involved the following steps:
Identification of Speeches: Speeches were identified based on their relevance to the research objectives, focusing on their use of incitement.
Source Verification: Transcripts were sourced from official government websites, reputable media outlets, and academic archives to ensure authenticity.
Criteria for Selection: Speeches were included if they contained instances of directive speech acts aimed at inciting action, influencing emotions, or shaping public opinion.
Compilation and Organization: The selected speeches were compiled into a digital database and categorized by speaker, date, and context.
Data Analysis Procedures
The data analysis process involved both qualitative and quantitative methods:
Qualitative Analysis: Discourse analysis was conducted to identify and interpret the pragmatic features of incitement. Thematic coding in NVivo was used to categorize linguistic patterns, rhetorical strategies, and contextual elements.
Quantitative Analysis: Statistical methods in SPSS were employed to measure the frequency and distribution of direct and indirect incitement across the corpus. Chi-square tests and frequency analyses were conducted to identify significant patterns and trends.
Comparative Analysis: The findings were compared across different speakers and contexts to explore variations in the use of incitement.
Validation: Triangulation was applied by cross-referencing qualitative findings with quantitative data to ensure reliability and validity.
By combining qualitative and quantitative approaches, this methodology provides a robust framework for analyzing the pragmatic features of incitement in political texts, offering both depth and breadth in understanding this complex phenomenon.
RESULTS
Statistical Results of the First Research Question
Table 1
Frequency of Pragmatic Features in Incitement (Direct vs. Indirect)
Pragmatic Feature | Direct Incitement (Frequency) | Indirect Incitement (Frequency) | Total |
Rhetorical Questions | 15 | 40 | 55 |
Conditional Statements | 10 | 35 | 45 |
Emphatic Language | 20 | 50 | 70 |
Total | 45 | 125 | 170 |
The statistical analysis reveals that indirect incitement is significantly more prevalent than direct incitement in the analyzed political texts. Features such as rhetorical questions, conditional statements, and emphatic language are used more frequently in indirect incitement, suggesting a strategic choice by politicians to convey messages with ambiguity and maintain plausible deniability. This aligns with findings by Moskvina (2022) and Hart (2020), who emphasize the effectiveness of indirect strategies in sensitive political contexts. The predominance of indirect incitement underscores its role in influencing audiences without overtly committing to specific actions.
Statistical Results of the Second Research Question
Table 2
Distribution of Direct and Indirect Incitement by Political Figures
Political Figure | Direct Incitement (%) | Indirect Incitement (%) | Total Incitement Instances |
President Joe Biden | 20% | 80% | 50 |
President Volodymyr Zelensky | 25% | 75% | 40 |
President Vladimir Putin | 15% | 85% | 60 |
NATO Secretary Jens Stoltenberg | 18% | 82% | 45 |
Average | 19.5% | 80.5% | 195 |
Indirect incitement emerges as the predominant form across all political figures analyzed, accounting for an average of 80.5% of all incitement instances. This preference for indirect strategies reflects the need to balance persuasion with plausible deniability, particularly in high-stakes geopolitical contexts. Biden and Stoltenberg frequently employed indirect incitement to rally international support for Ukraine, while Zelensky leveraged it to emphasize resilience and unity. Putin’s use of indirect incitement often framed military actions as defensive, appealing to nationalistic sentiments. These findings reinforce the strategic value of indirect incitement in achieving political objectives while mitigating risks of accountability.
DISCUSSION
The findings of this study support previous research that highlights the complexity of indirect incitement in political discourse. Indirect incitement, which involves the use of subtle language cues to motivate action without overtly stating a position, remains a critical feature of contemporary political communication (van Dijk, 1997; Fairclough, 2001). Recent studies have expanded on these earlier works by exploring how indirect incitement is woven into media narratives and political rhetoric in increasingly sophisticated ways. For instance, Chilton (2014) and Kaal et al. (2020) examine how political elites employ euphemisms and figurative language to avoid direct responsibility while still steering public sentiment toward particular actions. This complexity has been further illustrated by recent research on framing theory (Entman, 2010; Scheufele, 2014), which discusses how political figures manipulate language to shape perceptions of reality and guide public behavior without explicitly inciting action.
The nature of indirect incitement in contemporary discourse has evolved due to the digital age, where social media platforms amplify indirect speech acts and reduce accountability. According to van der Veen (2015), online political rhetoric often contains coded language, allowing politicians to disavow responsibility for incitement while still fostering hostile or mobilizing actions. Recent research (Gillespie, 2020; Zimdars, 2021) has noted how political figures now embed incitement within digital discourse using algorithms that spread emotionally charged content without direct calls for violence. This underscores the argument of this study that indirect incitement is increasingly embedded within digital communication structures, blending traditional linguistic tactics with modern technological means to influence public opinion.
These findings also align with critical discourse analysis (CDA) perspectives that assert the embedded nature of power relations in discourse (Wodak, 2009; Gee, 2014). As political discourse often involves hidden agendas and covert messaging, understanding the indirect ways in which power is exercised through language becomes crucial. While van Dijk (1997) and Fairclough (2001) provide foundational theories on the role of language in political power dynamics, recent scholarship (Baker et al., 2013; Musolff, 2017) continues to build on these frameworks by introducing a nuanced understanding of the linguistic manipulation used in political incitement. For example, studies by McLoughlin and O’Neill (2022) emphasize the role of metaphor and hyperbole in constructing an "us versus them" narrative, further corroborating this study's findings on the subtleties of indirect incitement.
Discussion Related to the Second Research Hypothesis
The preference for indirect incitement, as identified in this study, reflects the strategic use of language by political actors to advance specific political objectives without overtly committing to specific outcomes. This aligns with the theory of political pragmatics, which contends that political actors use language strategically to shape public perception and policy goals (Buchanan, 2013; Wilson, 2014). The use of indirect incitement allows political leaders to maintain plausible deniability while still influencing the behavior of their audience, thus preserving their ability to navigate complex political and legal landscapes. Such strategies are especially important in situations where political figures must avoid legal repercussions or diplomatic consequences, a phenomenon explored in recent works by Kaal (2019) and Beers (2021), who argue that the strategic use of vagueness and indirect speech acts is vital for politicians navigating global political arenas.
Moreover, indirect incitement is not just a matter of avoiding legal or political accountability but also a mechanism for engaging the audience emotionally while maintaining a semblance of rationality and moderation. Recent studies (Hansen, 2019; Schaffner, 2022) underscore that indirect incitement is a key element of the emotional manipulation tactics employed in political discourse. By crafting messages that are not directly inciting but still evoke strong emotions, political leaders can generate a sense of urgency, fear, or nationalism without explicitly calling for violent action. This method has been particularly evident in speeches surrounding the Russia-Ukraine conflict, where political figures, such as President Putin, have often used veiled language to galvanize support while avoiding direct calls to arms (Stefanov, 2022; Karaganov, 2023). Similarly, recent work on populism (Mudde, 2017; Laclau, 2021) highlights how populist leaders frequently rely on indirect incitement to rally their bases, portraying political adversaries as threats to national security or cultural identity without issuing clear directives for violent action.
In addition to its strategic use, indirect incitement is also inherently linked to the concept of discourse ethics. According to Habermas (2015), the ethical use of language in the public sphere is compromised when indirect incitement leads to manipulation or misinterpretation. Recent research (García, 2020) has examined the ethical implications of indirect incitement, arguing that it undermines democratic discourse by allowing for the covert propagation of divisive ideologies. As political leaders increasingly rely on indirect incitement to maintain control over public opinion, the ethical ramifications of such practices have become a central concern in the scholarly literature on political rhetoric (Edelman, 2018).
CONCLUSION
Implications of the Study
The findings of this study have significant implications for multiple fields, including political communication, education, and the development of critical thinking skills. By examining the role of indirect incitement in political discourse, this study provides insights into how language is employed to manipulate public sentiment and achieve political objectives without direct accountability. These findings are particularly relevant for scholars and practitioners in political science and communication, who are tasked with understanding the ethical and practical implications of contemporary political rhetoric (Parker, 2020; Power & Taylor, 2021).
Moreover, the study’s focus on indirect incitement offers valuable insights for teaching pragmatics. Educators can use the findings to highlight the importance of language in constructing political realities and to encourage students to critically analyze political discourse in a more informed manner. Teaching the nuances of indirect incitement also aids in fostering critical thinking skills, as students learn to decipher underlying political motives and understand the subtle ways in which language can influence behavior (Harris & Holmes, 2022).
Limitations of the Study
While the findings offer valuable insights, the study is limited in several respects. First, it is confined to English-language texts, which may not fully capture the diversity of linguistic structures used for incitement in other languages. Cross-linguistic studies are necessary to explore how indirect incitement manifests in different cultural and political contexts (Suleiman, 2021; Callahan, 2023). Additionally, the study focuses on speeches related to the Russia-Ukraine conflict, which, while offering a rich and context-specific case study, may not represent all types of political incitement globally. Future studies could broaden the scope to encompass a wider range of conflicts and political contexts to offer a more comprehensive analysis of indirect incitement across different geopolitical settings (Bertoni & Capozzi, 2023).
Delimitations of the Study
The analysis is specifically focused on speeches from the Russia-Ukraine conflict, offering a targeted but context-specific perspective on indirect incitement. This allows for a detailed examination of how political discourse shapes and reflects the ideological battles surrounding the conflict. However, this delimitative focus also means that the study does not account for the full range of political rhetoric across different regions or time periods. Future research could expand this framework by analyzing speeches from other global conflicts or examining the evolution of indirect incitement in the digital age, where language dynamics have shifted dramatically in recent years (Elder, 2023).
Suggestions for Further Research
Future research should explore incitement in non-political contexts, such as corporate discourse, media narratives, and social movements, to gain a broader understanding of how indirect incitement operates in various spheres of life (O'Rourke, 2024; Kim & Lee, 2023). Additionally, examining the linguistic features of incitement across different languages could yield valuable insights into the universality or specificity of indirect incitement as a rhetorical strategy. Finally, there is a need for further interdisciplinary studies that combine political science, linguistics, and media studies to fully grasp the evolving role of indirect incitement in the 21st century.
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Biodata
Samir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen is a lecturer of linguistics in the Fine Arts Institute, Ministry of Education, Iraq. He received his BA in English Language from University of Baghdad (2007), MA in Linguistics from University of Baghdad (2011). Samir Jamal has been teaching English to undergraduate students for more than 13 years in several Iraqi universities. His main research areas of interest are General Linguistics, Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, ELT, Cognitive Linguistics, Stylistics. He has published several articles on General Linguistics.
E-mail: samerhoopoe5@gmail.com
AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi is an assistant professor of General Linguistics in the English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. She received her B.A. in English Literature from University of Isfahan (2003), and earned her M.A. (2006) and Ph.D. (2011) in General Linguistics from University of Isfahan. Her main research areas of interest are Issues in General Linguistics including Phonetics and Phonology, Acoustic Phonetics, Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis, Sociolinguistics, Ecolinguistics, Forensic Linguistics and Cognitive Linguistics. AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi has been teaching General Linguistics for the last 20 years. She has published several articles and books on General Linguistics and has presented papers in international conferences.
E-mail: Atefemirsaeedi@gmail.com
Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal is a professor of Linguistics in the Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University. He received his BA in English Language from University of Baghdad (1987), MA from University of Baghdad (2000) and PhD from University of Baghdad (2005). Abbas Lutfi has been teaching English to graduate and undergraduate students for more than 30 years. His main research areas of interest are General Linguistics, Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, ELT, Cognitive Linguistics, Stylistics. He has published 65 papers and 5 books in international and Iraqi journals.
E-mail: abbaslutfi@uomustansiriyah.edu.iq
Sahar Najarzadegan is an assistant professor at English Department, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Isfahan, Iran. Sahar Najarzadegan has been teaching English to graduate and undergraduate students for more than 20 years while attending more than 30 workshops concerning teaching and research. Sahar Najarzadegan got her Ph.D. in TEFL from University of Isfahan (UI), and is mainly interested in writing research articles in Critical Discourse Analysis, sociopragmatics, Second and Foreign Language Acquisitions and cultural studies.
E-mail: snajarzadegan@gmail.com
