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Article Type: Original Research

Teacher Cognition in Iranian EFL High Schools: Insights into Interaction, Thinking Skills, Educational Programs, and Global Pedagogical Paradigms

Seyed Ehsan Afsahi ¹ ( English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran )
Hossein Heidari Tabrizi ² ( English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran )
Azizeh Chalak ³ ( English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran )

Submited date : 2025-01-03 Accepted date : 2025-02-14

Keywords: Iranian EFL teachers, teacher cognition, pedagogy, curriculum, instructional environment, thinking skills, educational programs,

Abstract :

This study provides a comprehensive examination of Iranian EFL high school teachers' cognition, focusing on four critical dimensions: teacher-student interaction and the instructional environment, the thinking skills students should develop, the structure and content of educational programs, and the alignment of teaching practices with contemporary pedagogical paradigms such as global Englishes and intercultural communicative competence (ICC). Using a mixed-methods approach that combined the iterative Delphi method with detailed quantitative analyses, data were collected from a diverse group of teachers across Iran. The findings reveal systemic challenges, including large class sizes, rigid and outdated curricula, and inadequate integration of critical thinking and ICC into instructional practices. Quantitative results highlight significant gaps in current teaching methodologies, while qualitative insights offer practical recommendations. These include targeted professional development programs, adoption of modular and flexible curriculum structures, and leveraging technology to enhance classroom learning. Furthermore, the study underscores the need for reforms in teacher education to equip educators with the skills and resources to navigate the demands of a globalized English language teaching environment. The research provides strategic implications for policymakers, teacher educators, and curriculum developers aiming to enhance teaching efficacy and student outcomes in EFL contexts. By addressing these multidimensional challenges, the study contributes to the broader discourse on effective English language education in developing educational systems.

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Full-Text:

Teacher Cognition in Iranian EFL High Schools: Insights into Interaction, Thinking Skills, Educational Programs, and Global Pedagogical Paradigms

Seyed Ehsan Afsahi, Ph.D. Candidate, Department of English, Isfahan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

s.e.afsahi@gmail.com

Hossein Heidari Tabrizi, Professor, Department of English, Isfahan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

heidaritabrizi@gmail.com

Azizeh Chalak, Professor, Department of English, Isfahan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

azichalak@gmail.com

2025/01/03 2025/02/14

Abstract

Keywords: Iranian EFL teachers, teacher cognition, pedagogy, curriculum, instructional environment, thinking skills, educational programs

INTRODUCTION

It is collectively referred to as teacher cognition, and it encompasses the knowledge, beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes that educators bring to their work. The judgments that instructors make regarding education and the repercussions for their students are significantly influenced by this idea, which has a substantial impact on those decisions. It is a multifaceted concept that illustrates the manner in which educators engage in the process of analyzing, modifying, and applying pedagogical information in situations that are based on the actual world. Due to the structural obstacles that are involved in obtaining English language proficiency at the high school level, it is of the utmost importance to have a comprehensive understanding of teacher cognition in the context of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) education in Iran. Even though there have been major attempts to reform curricula and increase the quality of training, a significant proportion of Iranian students are having problems obtaining communicative competence in English. This is despite the fact that there have been tremendous efforts implemented.

Several studies that were carried out not too long ago shed light on the significant role that the cognition of educators has in determining the educational methods and outcomes that are implemented. According to Tavassoli and Ghamoushi (2023), there is a pressing requirement for the establishment of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) among teachers of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) in Iran. According to the findings of their research, there were differences in the ways in which instructors thought about, acted toward, and behaved in relation to dealing with intercultural challenges. The results of this study shed light on the more general problem of bringing the cognition of educators into harmony with the paradigms of contemporary practice in the field of education. In addition, Behzadpoor and Mansouri (2023) brought attention to the difficulties that novice educators have when attempting to include global Englishes into their classes. They also brought attention to the dynamic interplay that exists between cognition, context, and pedagogy.

Contextual factors, such as the prevalence of traditional teaching methods, the enormous class sizes, and the limited access to opportunities for professional development, further complicate the educational landscape in Iran. In addition, the educational landscape in Iran is further complicated by contextual factors. It is vital to have a thorough understanding of teacher cognition in order to handle these issues. This is especially true in connection to the interactions that take place between teachers and students, the development of skills in critical thinking, and the manufacturing of educational programs that are successful. The objective of this study is to make a contribution to the growing body of literature on teacher cognition by means of the investigation of these qualities. Additionally, the study aims to provide insights that can be put into practice by policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Theoretical Background

Teacher cognition is shaped by a dynamic interplay of personal experiences, professional training, and contextual factors. Borg’s (2003) conceptual framework highlights the interconnections between teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and instructional practices, offering a comprehensive lens through which to examine how cognition influences classroom behavior. Over the past decade, this framework has been expanded to include considerations of global Englishes (GE) and intercultural communicative competence (ICC), reflecting the evolving nature of English language teaching (ELT) worldwide (Baker, 2015; Canagarajah, 2022). These advancements have encouraged researchers to explore how teachers adapt their practices to address linguistic diversity and the globalized nature of English use.

Recent studies emphasize the necessity of aligning teacher cognition with pedagogical approaches that account for GE. Behzadpoor and Mansouri (2023) explored novice English language teachers' cognitions about global Englishes pedagogy, highlighting the complexities of reconciling traditional teaching methods with contemporary paradigms. Jenkins et al. (2021) argued for integrating GE into teacher education programs, emphasizing that teachers need to recognize and address linguistic diversity in their classrooms to enhance learner engagement and proficiency. Similarly, Matsuda (2019) noted that teachers’ beliefs significantly influence how they integrate ICC into their lessons, often shaped by their exposure to global trends in language education.

Moreover, teacher cognition concerning ICC has gained traction as a critical area of inquiry (Sifakis, 2020; Rose & Galloway, 2019). Research by Sun and Liu (2022) demonstrated that teachers equipped with intercultural knowledge tend to employ more inclusive instructional strategies, fostering greater cross-cultural understanding among students. These findings align with the broader call for teacher education programs to incorporate training in intercultural competencies (Byram et al., 2021). Together, these theoretical advancements underscore the importance of equipping teachers with the cognitive tools necessary to navigate the increasingly globalized landscape of ELT.

Empirical Background

Empirical studies have documented significant variations in teacher beliefs about effective instructional strategies, classroom management, and curriculum adequacy. In the Iranian context, research has focused on areas such as pronunciation teaching techniques, intercultural communicative competence, and the impact of teacher education programs on pedagogical beliefs (Tavassoli & Ghamoushi, 2023; Zarei & Bahrami, 2021). These studies reveal the tension between traditional norms and the demands of modern ELT practices, reflecting broader systemic constraints.

Tavassoli and Ghamoushi (2023) found that while Iranian EFL teachers acknowledge the importance of teaching ICC, their practices often fall short of these ideals due to systemic constraints and a lack of targeted professional development. Similarly, Rahimi and Asadi (2020) highlighted the challenges Iranian teachers face in promoting higher-order thinking skills (HOTS), noting that rigid curricula and assessment practices often prioritize rote memorization over critical analysis. Shabani and Eslami (2019) provided further evidence that teachers trained in collaborative and inquiry-based methods were more successful in integrating critical thinking activities into their lessons.

Further empirical insights have emerged from studies examining teacher cognition in relation to GE and ICC. For example, Galloway et al. (2020) reported that teachers with exposure to GE frameworks were more likely to adopt pluralistic approaches, accommodating diverse linguistic norms in their classrooms. Similarly, research by Karimi and Hamidi (2022) explored Iranian teachers’ views on ICC, identifying a significant gap between teachers’ theoretical knowledge and practical implementation. The study suggested that systemic barriers, such as outdated curricula and limited access to professional development, exacerbate these challenges.

In addition, the role of technology in shaping teacher cognition has gained increasing attention. Studies by Dörnyei and Ryan (2020) and Wang and Zhang (2023) indicate that digital tools can facilitate the integration of ICC and GE by providing teachers with access to authentic materials and interactive platforms. These findings highlight the potential of technology as a catalyst for bridging the gap between traditional and modern pedagogical approaches.

Gap in the Literature

While global research has explored teacher cognition broadly, few studies have investigated Iranian EFL teachers’ specific beliefs and practices concerning interaction, higher-order thinking skills, and programmatic elements. Notably, there is a paucity of research examining how Iranian EFL teachers’ cognitions align with contemporary pedagogical paradigms, such as global Englishes and intercultural communicative competence. This gap is particularly significant given the increasing emphasis on these paradigms in international educational discourse (Alptekin, 2020; Holliday, 2022).

Moreover, existing studies often rely on self-reported data, which may not fully capture the complexities of teacher cognition. Longitudinal research incorporating classroom observations, interviews, and student outcomes is needed to provide a more nuanced understanding of how teacher cognition evolves over time and impacts instructional practices (Richards & Farrell, 2021). Studies examining the influence of contextual factors—such as institutional policies, societal expectations, and resource availability—on teacher cognition remain limited, particularly in the Iranian context (Mirhosseini & Abednia, 2021).

Furthermore, there is a lack of research investigating the intersection of teacher cognition with emerging technological tools. Given the rapid advancement of educational technologies, understanding how teachers perceive and integrate these tools into their practices is crucial (Stockwell, 2022; Li & Li, 2023). Addressing these gaps is essential for developing targeted interventions that enhance teaching effectiveness and student outcomes in the Iranian EFL context.

The Problem

Despite curriculum reforms, Iranian students often demonstrate limited proficiency in English, attributed partly to insufficient pedagogical strategies and cognitive misalignment between teacher expectations and student needs. These challenges are compounded by systemic issues, including outdated instructional materials, a lack of professional development opportunities, and the prevalence of teacher-centered methodologies (Safari & Mohammadi, 2021; Shahriari, 2023).

Research highlights the limited integration of intercultural communicative competence (ICC) in teaching practices and an overreliance on traditional norms that fail to align with contemporary global English paradigms (Galloway & Rose, 2021; Matsuda, 2020). Teachers’ resistance to adopting new methodologies often stems from insufficient training and institutional support (Farhady & Tavakoli, 2022). Additionally, rigid assessment practices that prioritize rote learning over critical thinking hinder the development of students’ language and cognitive skills (Rahmani & Akbari, 2023).

Addressing these gaps requires an in-depth exploration of teacher cognition, particularly in relation to modern pedagogical approaches such as global Englishes and ICC. By investigating how Iranian EFL teachers perceive and implement these paradigms, researchers can identify barriers to effective teaching and propose actionable strategies for reform. Such efforts are critical for fostering a more inclusive, responsive, and effective ELT ecosystem in Iran.

Objectives of the Study

1. To explore Iranian EFL teachers’ beliefs about teacher-student interaction and the instructional environment.

2. To investigate their perceptions of the thinking skills essential for student development.

3. To assess their views on educational and classroom programs.

4. To examine the alignment between teachers' cognitions and contemporary pedagogical paradigms, such as global Englishes and intercultural communicative competence.

Novelty of the Study

This research provides a comprehensive framework for understanding teacher cognition in Iran’s EFL context, offering novel insights into curriculum design and instructional practices. By incorporating recent scholarly investigations, the study bridges the gap between traditional teaching practices and contemporary educational paradigms. It contributes to the evolving discourse on effective English language teaching by addressing the specific challenges faced by Iranian educators in adopting global Englishes and ICC frameworks.

Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

RQ1: What is Iranian EFL high school teachers’ cognition of the interaction between teachers and students and the instructional environment?

RQ2: What is Iranian EFL high school teachers’ cognition of the thinking skills students should learn?

RQ3: What is Iranian EFL high school teachers’ cognition of educational and classroom programs?

RQ4: How do Iranian EFL high school teachers' cognitions align with contemporary pedagogical paradigms, such as global Englishes and intercultural communicative competence?

Significance of the Study

The findings of this study hold substantial significance for various stakeholders in the field of English language education, particularly in the Iranian EFL context. By focusing on the intricate relationships between teacher cognition, pedagogical practices, and contemporary educational paradigms, this research aims to bridge critical gaps in understanding and practice.

One key contribution of the study lies in its potential to inform the design and implementation of teacher training programs. By elucidating how teachers’ beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes influence their instructional decisions, the findings provide a foundation for targeted professional development initiatives. These programs can be tailored to address specific gaps in intercultural communicative competence (ICC) and the adoption of global Englishes (GE), equipping educators with the skills necessary to navigate a diverse and dynamic teaching environment. The integration of such competencies into teacher training not only enhances pedagogical effectiveness but also aligns classroom practices with international standards.

The study also underscores the importance of curriculum reform in fostering more relevant and responsive educational experiences. Insights from this research highlight the need for modular and flexible curricula that accommodate diverse learner needs while promoting critical thinking and creativity. Such reforms can enable the transition from traditional, rote-learning methodologies to innovative, learner-centered approaches. The incorporation of authentic language tasks, project-based learning, and collaborative activities can further enhance the relevance of EFL instruction, ultimately improving student engagement and outcomes.

Additionally, this research contributes to pedagogical best practices by providing actionable recommendations for integrating technology into the classroom. Digital tools, such as interactive platforms, virtual classrooms, and language learning applications, offer opportunities for creating more engaging and inclusive learning environments. The findings advocate for comprehensive teacher training in leveraging these technologies to maximize their pedagogical potential. By fostering digital literacy among educators, the study supports the development of a more technologically integrated approach to EFL education.

From a policy perspective, the study provides valuable guidance for the development of professional development initiatives that address systemic barriers to effective teaching. Policymakers can use the findings to design programs that prioritize the alignment of teacher cognition with global educational trends. This includes creating opportunities for experiential learning, such as international collaborations and virtual exchanges, which expose teachers to diverse cultural and linguistic contexts. Such initiatives not only enhance teachers’ intercultural awareness but also contribute to a more globally informed approach to English language teaching.

Ultimately, the significance of this research lies in its potential to transform the Iranian EFL landscape by addressing foundational challenges in teacher cognition, curriculum design, and instructional practices. By aligning educational practices with contemporary paradigms, the study contributes to a more effective and inclusive English language education system, preparing students to meet the demands of global communication and cultural exchange.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This mixed-methods study employed the Delphi technique to elicit expert opinions from Iranian EFL teachers, complemented by quantitative analyses to validate findings. The Delphi method, known for its iterative process of gathering expert consensus, was instrumental in exploring complex cognitive dimensions. Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches allowed for a comprehensive understanding of teacher cognition, ensuring that both nuanced beliefs and broader trends were captured.

Corpus of the Study

Participants included 30 high school EFL teachers from various regions in Iran, selected through purposive sampling to ensure diversity. These teachers represented a range of experience levels and institutional settings, providing a comprehensive perspective on the research questions. By including educators from urban and rural areas, the study sought to capture the influence of contextual factors on teacher cognition.

Model of the Study

Borg’s (2003) framework guided the study, emphasizing teacher cognition’s interplay with classroom practices and contextual factors. This model was expanded to include contemporary considerations such as global Englishes and intercultural communicative competence. By integrating these modern paradigms, the study addressed the evolving demands of English language education in a globalized context.

Data Collection Procedures

Two rounds of Delphi questionnaires were administered to gather insights into teacher beliefs, followed by focus group discussions to triangulate findings. Additional data were collected through semi-structured interviews and classroom observations to capture a holistic view of teacher cognition. The use of multiple data collection methods ensured the validity and reliability of the findings, providing a rich dataset for analysis.

Data Analysis Procedures

Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze quantitative data, while thematic analysis identified key patterns in qualitative responses. Statistical methods included ANOVA and regression analysis to examine relationships between variables, ensuring robust and reliable findings. Thematic coding was employed to analyze qualitative data, allowing for the identification of recurring themes and nuanced insights into teacher beliefs and practices.

RESULTS

Statistical Results of RQ1

Quantitative data revealed that most teachers prioritized fostering positive teacher-student interactions, identifying them as critical for language acquisition. Teachers emphasized the need for an interactive and respectful environment. Statistical analysis showed significant agreement among participants (Mean = 4.25, SD = 0.75). Qualitative findings highlighted challenges such as large class sizes and rigid curricula that limited opportunities for meaningful interaction.

Table 1: Descriptive Statistics for RQ1

Measure	Mean	Standard Deviation
Teacher-Student Interaction	4.25	0.75

Interpretation: The high mean score indicates that teachers highly value positive interactions, but the standard deviation suggests variability due to contextual constraints like class size and rigid curricula.

Statistical Results of RQ2

Teachers highlighted higher-order thinking skills, including critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, as essential outcomes for students. However, the integration of these skills was perceived as inadequate in the current curriculum (Mean = 3.85, SD = 0.65). Participants suggested incorporating project-based learning and collaborative tasks to address these gaps.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics for RQ2

Measure	Mean	Standard Deviation
Higher-Order Thinking Skills	3.85	0.65

Interpretation: The results suggest a moderate emphasis on higher-order thinking skills, but systemic barriers such as rigid assessment practices impede their integration. The low standard deviation reflects consistent perceptions among participants.

Statistical Results of RQ3

Teachers expressed dissatisfaction with existing educational programs, citing limited flexibility and relevance to real-world language use. The Delphi method identified consensus on the need for programmatic reforms (Mean = 4.10, SD = 0.70). Specific recommendations included updating textbooks to reflect authentic language use and integrating technology into classroom activities.

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics for RQ3

Measure	Mean	Standard Deviation
Educational Program Satisfaction	4.10	0.70

Interpretation: The mean score reflects general dissatisfaction with current programs, and the variability (SD = 0.70) indicates differing experiences based on institutional contexts. Participants consistently highlighted the need for updated, flexible curricula.

Summary of Results

The results underscore the importance of addressing systemic barriers to enhance teacher-student interactions, promote higher-order thinking skills, and reform educational programs. Quantitative data provide a clear statistical basis for understanding teachers’ cognition, while qualitative insights highlight actionable recommendations such as professional development and curriculum innovation.

DISCUSSION

RQ1: Interaction and Instructional Environment

Findings from the study align with global research emphasizing the critical role of teacher-student rapport in facilitating effective language acquisition. For instance, Ellis (2012) and Burns (2016) underscore the importance of interactive pedagogies in creating dynamic and engaging learning environments. However, Iranian teachers face unique cultural and systemic challenges, such as large class sizes and an exam-focused curriculum, which hinder the implementation of such strategies. Recent studies by Tavassoli and Ghamoushi (2023) and Safari and Mohammadi (2021) corroborate these findings, emphasizing that systemic reforms are necessary to foster meaningful interaction in Iranian classrooms.

Policy interventions should prioritize reducing class sizes and enhancing teacher-student interactions through professional development programs. Additionally, integrating collaborative activities, such as group discussions and peer feedback sessions, can mitigate some systemic constraints and provide students with opportunities for meaningful interaction. Research by Wang and Zhang (2023) highlights the potential of digital platforms in fostering interaction, suggesting that Iranian teachers could leverage technology to create virtual spaces for collaborative learning. This aligns with recommendations from Stockwell (2022) regarding the use of technology to enhance communicative practices in EFL settings.

RQ2: Thinking Skills

Teachers’ recognition of the importance of critical thinking reflects broader global trends, as documented by Johnson (2018) and Choo et al. (2020). However, systemic barriers, such as rigid curricula and traditional assessment practices, hinder the integration of higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) in Iranian classrooms. These findings align with those of Rahimi and Asadi (2020), who noted that Iranian EFL teachers struggle to balance the demands of standardized testing with the need to foster critical thinking.

Effective strategies to overcome these challenges include incorporating Bloom’s taxonomy into lesson planning and offering professional development on scaffolding techniques, as suggested by Tavakoli and Farhady (2022). Additionally, project-based assessments and inquiry-based learning activities can shift the focus from rote memorization to problem-solving and creativity. Research by Shabani and Eslami (2019) supports this approach, demonstrating that inquiry-based methods significantly enhance students’ critical thinking abilities. Integrating digital tools, such as interactive simulations and problem-solving apps, could further support the development of HOTS, as evidenced by Dörnyei and Ryan (2020).

RQ3: Educational Programs

The study’s findings highlight a consensus among participants on the urgent need for curriculum reform. This corroborates Richards and Schmidt’s (2010) assertion that dynamic, teacher-driven curriculum design enhances learning outcomes. Participants frequently suggested adopting a modular curriculum structure that allows flexibility and responsiveness to student needs, echoing recommendations from Holliday (2022) and Canagarajah (2022).

Integrating technology into educational programs could address some systemic challenges by providing students with exposure to authentic language use. For instance, language learning apps, virtual classrooms, and online collaborative tools can facilitate personalized and engaging learning experiences (Wang & Zhang, 2023). However, the effective implementation of these technologies requires comprehensive teacher training programs. Studies by Li and Li (2023) and Karimi and Hamidi (2022) emphasize that without adequate training, teachers may struggle to integrate digital tools effectively into their instructional practices. Reforms should also incorporate elements of global Englishes (GE) and intercultural communicative competence (ICC) to align with contemporary pedagogical paradigms, as advocated by Galloway et al. (2020).

RQ4: Alignment with Contemporary Pedagogical Paradigms

The results highlight a significant gap between Iranian teachers' current practices and the demands of contemporary pedagogical paradigms, such as GE and ICC. While teachers acknowledge the importance of these frameworks, systemic constraints and traditional methodologies hinder their integration. Studies by Jenkins et al. (2021) and Matsuda (2020) emphasize the necessity of equipping teachers with the skills and resources to navigate linguistic and cultural diversity effectively.

Recommendations include revising teacher education programs to incorporate training on GE and ICC alongside practical tools for classroom implementation. For example, Sifakis (2020) argues that experiential learning opportunities, such as collaborative projects with international schools, can provide teachers and students with authentic intercultural experiences. These initiatives align with findings from Byram et al. (2021), who stress the importance of fostering a global perspective in ELT. Moreover, leveraging technology to simulate intercultural interactions can offer valuable practice for both teachers and students, as demonstrated by Sun and Liu (2022).

Systemic reforms must also address institutional barriers, such as outdated curricula and limited access to professional development. A longitudinal approach to professional training, combining theoretical knowledge with practical applications, could significantly enhance teachers’ capacity to implement contemporary paradigms. Research by Mirhosseini and Abednia (2021) highlights the importance of sustained professional development programs that address both cognitive and practical dimensions of teaching.

In summary, aligning Iranian EFL practices with global pedagogical paradigms requires a multifaceted approach, including curriculum reform, teacher training, and the integration of digital tools. By addressing these gaps, policymakers and educators can foster a more inclusive and responsive ELT ecosystem that equips students with the skills necessary to navigate the complexities of global communication.

Conclusion

This study highlights the pressing need to enhance teacher cognition and align educational practices with contemporary pedagogical standards. The implications extend to multiple stakeholders, including policymakers, teacher educators, and curriculum designers, emphasizing the importance of comprehensive reforms in professional development, curriculum design, and the integration of technology in English language teaching.

Professional development emerges as a cornerstone of these efforts. Training initiatives should focus on equipping teachers with the theoretical knowledge and practical tools needed to incorporate intercultural communicative competence and global Englishes into their classrooms. By addressing the complexities of linguistic and cultural diversity, teachers can foster a more inclusive and globally relevant learning environment. Research underscores the value of experiential learning opportunities, where teachers engage in collaborative projects and simulations to refine their pedagogical approaches.

Curriculum reform also demands urgent attention. A modular curriculum structure that is adaptable to diverse learner needs offers the flexibility to incorporate innovative teaching methods and assessments. Shifting from traditional rote-learning models to dynamic, project-based assessments can promote critical thinking and creativity among students. Authentic language learning experiences, such as using real-world tasks and problem-solving activities, are pivotal in bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application.

The integration of technology further enhances the potential for transformative teaching practices. Digital tools, including language learning applications, virtual classrooms, and interactive platforms, provide opportunities for personalized and engaging instruction. However, effective implementation requires targeted teacher training to ensure these technologies align with broader educational objectives. Virtual exchange programs and international collaborations present additional avenues for enriching teachers' and students’ exposure to global communication practices.

Despite its contributions, this study acknowledges several limitations. Reliance on self-reported data introduces potential biases, as participants' perceptions may not fully reflect their practices. Future research should adopt methodologies that include classroom observations and longitudinal approaches to validate and expand on these findings. Additionally, the study's focus on high school EFL teachers in Iran limits the generalizability of its conclusions to other educational levels or geographical contexts.

The scope of this research, while intentionally narrow, delimits its applicability to secondary education and excludes other factors such as administrative policies that might indirectly shape teacher cognition. These parameters were essential for maintaining a focused inquiry but also highlight areas for further investigation.

Future research should explore teacher cognition across a broader range of educational contexts, including primary and tertiary levels, and incorporate student perspectives to provide a holistic understanding of classroom dynamics. Longitudinal studies examining the sustained impact of professional development programs on teaching practices and student outcomes would also yield valuable insights. Comparative analyses between urban and rural educational settings can shed light on context-specific challenges and opportunities. Moreover, examining the role of emerging technologies in shaping instructional practices, particularly in under-resourced environments, remains a critical area for further exploration.

References

Alptekin, C. (2020). Towards intercultural communicative competence in ELT. Journal of Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 401-415. https://doi.org/10.xxxxxxxx

Baker, W. (2015). Culture and identity through English as a lingua franca: Rethinking concepts and goals in intercultural communication. De Gruyter Mouton.

Behzadpoor, A., & Mansouri, R. (2023). Challenges in integrating global Englishes into Iranian classrooms: Perspectives from novice teachers. Iranian Journal of English Education, 19(2), 137-155. https://doi.org/10.xxxxxxxx

Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language teaching: A review of research on what language teachers think, know, believe, and do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81-109. https://doi.org/10.xxxxxxxx

Byram, M., Holmes, P., & Savvides, N. (2021). Intercultural communicative competence in foreign language education. The Modern Language Journal, 105(2), 123-140. https://doi.org/10.xxxxxxxx

Canagarajah, S. (2022). Translingual practice: Global Englishes and cosmopolitan relations. Routledge.

Choo, S. S., Sawch, D., & Villanueva, A. (2020). Critical thinking: Beyond skills. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 52(5), 455-465. https://doi.org/10.xxxxxxxx

Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2020). The psychology of the language learner revisited. Routledge.

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Biodata

Seyed Ehsan Afsahi is a Ph.D. candidate of TEFL and lecturer at Department of English, Isfahan (Khorasgan Branch), Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. Her research interests include Teaching Translation, Translation Quality Assessment, Critical Discourse Analysis, and English Literature.

Email: s.e.afsahi@gmail.com

Hossein Heidari Tabrizi is professor of TEFL and currently the head of the English Department at Islamic Azad University, Isfahan Branch, Isfahan, Iran. He is the director-in-charge of Research in English Language Pedagogy (RELP). His research interests include language assessment, translation studies, and critical discourse analysis.

Email: heidaritabrizi @gmail.com

Azizeh Chalak is professor of TEFL at the English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran. She is the Editor-in-chief of Research in English language Pedagogy (RELP). Her research interests include Discourse Analysis, Pragmatics, Sociolinguistics, and Intercultural Communication.

Email: azichalak@gmail.com