Translanguaging in Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Functions and Challenges

Javad Gholami ¹ ( Department of English Language and Literature at Urmia University, Urmia, IRAN. )
Alla  Faris Hadi ² ( Department of English Language and Literature at Urmia University, Urmia, IRAN. )

Submited date : 2024-11-30 Accepted date : 2025-01-21

Keywords: EMI, Translanguaging, Functions, Challenges, Teachers’ perspectives, Iraqi context,

Abstract :

Despite extensive studies on translanguaging in content and language teaching literature in recent years, it has hardly been acknowledged as a valid pedagogical approach. Furthermore, there exists a paucity of research about translanguaging as a pedagogical approach in newly established EMI classrooms and the perspectives of EMI educators on their translanguaging methodologies. Therefore, it is essential to elucidate how EMI educators comprehend their translanguaging methods during specific instances of classroom interaction and how diverse contextual elements influence these interactions. This study examines teachers’ perspectives on the functions and challenges of applying translanguaging in EMI classrooms and how EMI instructors interpret their translanguaging practices in Iraq educational contexts. This study uses translanguaging as an analytical framework to investigate the interactional dynamics in content and language instruction to enhance student engagement and integrate external knowledge into the classroom. In doing so, five teachers were selected for an in-depth interview on various aspects of translanguaging. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data, and the extracted themes were discussed. The pedagogical implications for educators and policymakers were elaborated.Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data, and the extracted themes were discussed. The pedagogical implications for educators and policymakers were elaborated.The pedagogical implications for educators and policymakers were elaborated.

References:

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Full-Text:



Translanguaging in Teaching English as a Foreign Language: Functions and Challenges

Javad Gholami

[e-mail]

[phone]

Assistant Professor

Ph.D.

Department of English Language and Literature at Urmia University, Urmia, IRAN.

 

2	Alla Faris Hadi	[e-mail]	00	Instructor	Ph.D.	Department of English Language and Literature at Urmia University, Urmia, IRAN

 

 

Abstract

Despite extensive studies on translanguaging in content and language teaching literature in recent years, it has hardly been acknowledged as a valid pedagogical approach. Furthermore, there exists a paucity of research about translanguaging as a pedagogical approach in newly established EMI classrooms and the perspectives of EMI educators on their translanguaging methodologies. Therefore, it is essential to elucidate how EMI educators comprehend their translanguaging methods during specific instances of classroom interaction and how diverse contextual elements influence these interactions. This study examines teachers’ perspectives on the functions and challenges of applying translanguaging in EMI classrooms and how EMI instructors interpret their translanguaging practices in Iraq educational contexts. This study uses translanguaging as an analytical framework to investigate the interactional dynamics in content and language instruction to enhance student engagement and integrate external knowledge into the classroom. In doing so, five teachers were selected for an in-depth interview on various aspects of translanguaging. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data, and the extracted themes were discussed. The pedagogical implications for educators and policymakers were elaborated.

Keywords:  EMI, Translanguaging, Functions, Challenges, Teachers’ perspectives, Iraqi context

1.       Introduction

English as a medium of instruction (EMI) has become increasingly popular in education systems worldwide. In response to this trend, the Iraqi Ministry of Education has launched a new initiative to adopt EMI in several privileged secondary schools. Students and graduates in Iraq have always been seen as having low English proficiency, and the Ministry of Education initiatives are hoped to improve the situation. They started this program in Distinguished Students Secondary Schools across the country to equip the students with better English proficiency levels to help them in their future upper academic studies and research. The Ministry's decision was pushed because those distinguished students enjoy higher proficiency levels compared to their peers in other schools and thus can cope with this new experience. This ambitious step, however, is faced with serious challenges, such as students' low motivation levels, students' resistance to EMI, teachers' lack of training, large class sizes, limited students' proficiency, etc.

Given that the experience is new in the Iraqi context and the combination of new academic subject knowledge and an unfamiliar instructional language, coping with EMI is incredibly challenging for students who come from primary schools with subjects instructed in their mother tongue, Arabic, and teachers who are used to teaching in Arabic. As such, students might need to become strong, independent learners to strategically regulate their learning to survive and thrive amid these challenges. This study, therefore, focuses on exploring this new experience when students first enter an English-medium instruction learning environment. The study explores (1) the learning difficulties perceived by first-grade students and their strategic self-regulatory learning during the first semester at an EMI secondary school in the Governate of Babylon, Iraq, and (2) the EMI teachers' perceptions of the challenges they face in these new learning environments.

Although translanguaging has been researched widely in content and language teaching literature in the past few years, Garcia and Li (2014) suggest that translanguaging has rarely been recognized as a legitimate pedagogical practice. Moreover, there is limited research on translanguaging as a pedagogy in newly launched EMI classrooms and on EMI teachers’ reflections on their translanguaging practices (Tai & Li, 2020). In particular, a lack of research has illuminated how different translanguaging spaces are constructed through EMI teachers’ practices and what pedagogical goals translanguaging accomplish. Hence, it is important to uncover how EMI teachers understand their translanguaging practices at particular moments in classroom interaction and how various contextual factors shape classroom interactions. To address these research gaps, this study aims to investigate the role of teachers’ translanguaging in constructing multiple translanguaging spaces in EMI classrooms and how EMI teachers make sense of their translanguaging practices. Specifically, this thesis adopts translanguaging as an analytical perspective to explore the specific interactional phenomenon in content and language teaching for promoting student engagement and bringing outside knowledge into the classroom.

2.       Review of literature

Translanguaging, a pedagogical approach that leverages students' entire linguistic repertoire, has gained recognition as an inclusive method in English Medium Instruction (EMI) schools (Plata & Macawile, 2022). This approach allows for equal opportunities for students who may not be proficient in the target language, fostering a balanced learning environment (Plata & Macawile, 2022). Teachers implementing translanguaging pedagogy can create a multilingual classroom space that engages students with their diverse linguistic identities and epistemologies (Phyak, 2023). By utilizing translanguaging practices, teachers can counter monolingual ideologies and effectively draw on students' home languages to address their learning needs (Phyak et al., 2022). In the context of EMI schools, where English is the primary medium of instruction, translanguaging can play a crucial role in supporting students' language development (Daniel et al., 2017). Teachers can scaffold translanguaging activities to help students recognize the benefits of using multiple languages for learning (Daniel et al., 2017). Additionally, translanguaging pedagogy can be instrumental in creating a language education ecological environment that focuses on students' language practices and needs (Wang & Li, 2022). Furthermore, translanguaging practices can be particularly beneficial in EMI classrooms in diverse settings such as Bangladesh, where questioning monolingual beliefs in language instruction is essential for effective language teaching. Implementing translanguaging pedagogies in preservice teacher education can provide valuable insights for both English-medium and dual-language educators (Machado & Gonzales, 2020). By recognizing and building multilingual students' linguistic resources, translanguaging pedagogy can enhance language and content competencies in school contexts. In conclusion, the attitudes and practices of teachers towards translanguaging in EMI schools can significantly impact students' learning experiences. By embracing translanguaging pedagogies, teachers can create inclusive and supportive environments that cater to the diverse linguistic needs of students, ultimately enhancing the quality of English language instruction in EMI schools.

2.1.       EMI 

The world is currently witnessing a significant shift in the approach and delivery of English language education for adolescents and young adults in both secondary and higher levels. Instead of primarily using classrooms focused on teaching L2, L2 English is taught through an academic topic that is not English. Put simply, a "content subject" involves being instructed in a language that is not the primary language (L1) of most pupils in a class, or of the majority of people outside that class. The criterion mentioned above is the distinguishing factor between English medium instruction (EMI) and content-based learning, also known as content-based language acquisition. This criterion has been identified by scholars such as Met (1999) and Stoller (2004). In nations like the United States or Australia, while English may be a second language (L2) for most pupils in a classroom, it is not an L2 for the majority of individuals outside the classroom. Our concept of EMI does not encompass the latter educational context discussed in this study.

The EMI phenomenon is referred to by various labels, including English medium instruction (Byun et al., 2011; Tatzl, 2011), English medium of instruction (Chu, 2005), English as a medium of instruction (Sultana, 2014), English-medium education (Earls, 2016), and English as the lingua franca medium of instruction (Björkman, 2010). While the terms "English" and "medium" are commonly associated with university education, they have also been employed in secondary education, such as in studies conducted in Hong Kong, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. CLIL, or content and language integrated learning, is an alternative term used to describe the method of teaching subjects through a second language (L2) in countries where the majority of the population does not have that language as their first language (L1). This term is typically used in European contexts, such as the study by Ruiz de Zarobe and Jiménez-Catalán (2009), but it is not limited to those circumstances. For example, it has also been used in Taiwan, as shown in the study by Tai (2015). CLIL is mostly employed in secondary education, however, there have been instances of its usage in university education, as evidenced by the Taiwan research. More recently, a new phrase, "integrating content and language in higher education," has emerged, effectively combining a secondary concept with a postsecondary one. In this essay, we use the term EMI as a broad term that encompasses all the other labels mentioned.

2.2.       Translanguaging 

It is widely known that most individuals across the world are multilingual, meaning they often switch between two or more languages in their everyday lives (Canagarajah, 2013a). Over the past 50 years, a substantial number of scholarships have examinEarlynguage behaviors. While early research in linguistics, sociolinguistics, and psycholinguistics saw languages as distinand ct and independent entities, modern scholarship has started to question and challenge these perceived borders between languages. Research has shown that multilingual speakers do not simply switch between different languages, but instead utilize a single extensive linguistic repertoire. They selectively choose linguistic features from this repertoire to enhance their communication effectiveness. This finding is supported by studies conducted by Canagarajah (2011), Creese and Blackledge (2010), García and Wei (2014), and Goodman and Tastanbek (2021). The shift in epistemology, from focusing on the number of languages that individuals know to how they effectively utilize their linguistic resources to accomplish their goals, has resulted in a greater acceptance of the word "translanguaging".

The term 'translanguaging' was first used in the 1980s by Cen Williams. He used the Welsh word 'Trawsieithu' to describe pedagogical practices in bilingual classrooms in Wales. In these classrooms, pupils receive information in one language and reply in another. Subsequently, the word translanguaging has gained prominence in academic literature, and several efforts have been made to formulate its precise definition. Otheguy et al. (2015) define translanguaging as the utilization of a speaker's complete linguistic repertoire, disregarding strict adherence to socially and politically defined borders of designated languages, typically at the national and state level (p. 281). García and Wei (2014) emphasize that translanguaging is not a strategy employed by multilingual individuals just due to a lack of vocabulary to express oneself in a single language. It is a process in which bilingual or multilingual speakers skillfully and purposefully choose language elements from their whole range of abilities to effectively meet their communication demands.

This study investigates the new experience of introducing EMI at the school level in Iraq. This study seeks to examine EMI secondary classroom interactions to describe and interpret how EMI teachers employ different resources available to construct translanguaging spaces in EMI schools.

3.       Method

3.1.       Participants

In the project's preliminary phase, five instructors were requested to gather data on their perceptions of translanguaging EMI for educational purposes inside their university environment. The participants were chosen for their academic expertise in instructing undergraduate subjects in English, as evidenced by their engagement in this domain (e.g., Seidman, 2006; Silverman, 2013). To maintain the university's ethical standards during the investigation, the personal information of all participants was omitted to guarantee their anonymity. Before acquiring their consent, the participating teachers were informed about the research's purpose, the guarantee of anonymity, and their right to withdraw from the study at any moment.

3.4. Interview:

A request was sent to five members of the teaching staff to learn more about their opinions about the translanguaging of EMI for the purpose of learning in an academic setting. Participants were selected based on their academic background and experience instructing college English courses (Seidman, 2006; Silverman, 2013). To maintain participant anonymity, all participant details were withheld per the ethical guidelines of the university under research. Teachers who agreed to participate in the study were told about its purpose, confidentiality, and ability to withdraw at any time. This was done prior to obtaining their agreement.

3.4. Procedure

For the gathering of the qualitative data, interviews that were semi-structured were done. In response to the first research question, participants were asked to explain their opinions and experiences of teaching their courses using "English-only" or "English and Arabic" approaches. They were also asked to explain who made the decision about the teaching approach, what criteria were used to make the decision, how the approach could be used in practice, what advantages and disadvantages the approach might have, and how they could use and encounter the approach in their teaching and assessment practices. On the campus of the institution, interviews took place. They were all audio recorded, with an average duration of fifteen to twenty-five minutes. The researcher translated and transcribed the respondents from the Arabic-language interviews.

The qualitative information gathered from the interviews was transcribed, carefully examined, and subjected to theme analysis. According to Holloway and Todres (2003), theme analysis is the most common technique for examining data gathered using a variety of approaches. Qualitative research is complex and multifaceted. This kind of analysis is a method for locating, looking over, and revealing patterns in data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Braun and Clarke (2006) proposed six steps for theme analysis. Researchers should use these methods to their data and study aims rather than seeing them as rigid, inflexible, linear, and prescriptive guidelines for qualitative data analysis. The following six steps are:

1. Familiarization with the data: The researcher reads or listens tdetailede researcher gains a detailed understanding of the data by doing this. The subsequent analysis is based on this phase.

2. Code generation: To explain data patterns and meanings, researchers locate and create simple codes. These codes are more frequent and complex than themes, and they provide context for the debate.

3. Theme generation: After first interpreting and analyzing the codes, the researcher looks for patterns and blends them to create themes.

4. Topic reviews: Scholars refine, combine, divide, or reject preliminary ideas. The concepts and coded data must be compared by the researcher. At this point, a theme ‘map' can be made.

5. Theme formulation and labeling: In this phase, topics and possible sub-themes are clarified. The researcher has to refine topics after they have been identified. It's also beneficial to provide topic titles and succinct descriptions.

6. Report writing: Using themes and data analysis, the researcher presents the findings. The report's clarity should persuade readers of the analysis's validity and value.

4.       Results

Thematic analysis was employed to analyze the data in this inquiry. The objective of content analysis, a widely used qualitative data analysis approach, is to encode data in a methodical manner to identify patterns and formulate sound interpretations. 

4.1.       Functions of implementing translanguaging in EMI classrooms

EMI is an educational method in which English is the main language used for teaching in a context where English is not the native language. It facilitates pupils in fully engaging with the language and enhancing their proficiency in communication. It offers several advantages to students in the classroom. Firstly, EMI enhances students' English language proficiency, as they are constantly exposed to and required to use English in various academic contexts. Secondly, EMI promotes global communication skills, enabling students to effectively interact with others from different linguistic backgrounds. Lastly, EMI prepares students for further education and professional opportunities in an increasingly interconnected world where English is widely used as a medium of communication. EMI provides students with authentic opportunities to apply English in practical contexts, therefore enhancing their fluency and self-assurance. Most of teachers pointed out that they have utilized EMI in in their lessons to enhance students' English language skills, while simultaneously integrating translanguaging techniques to facilitate their learning process. The following are the main themes extracted from the data interviews.

Enhanced Comprehension: Translanguaging allows students to access their full linguistic repertoire to understand complex concepts and instructions in English. Students who encounter challenging academic content can use their native language to clarify meanings, leading to a deeper understanding of the material. This process helps bridge the gap between their existing knowledge in their native language and the new information presented in English. The following teachers clarified this:

Teacher 1: I have experience using translanguaging strategies to support multilingual students in my classroom and help them navigate language barriers.

Teacher 2: Translanguaging refers to the pedagogical approach of using different languages in the classroom to enhance students' comprehension and acquisition of knowledge. Within my EMI lessons, I actively promote the utilization of students' mother tongue as a means of overcoming difficulties encountered in expressing oneself in English. This facilitates the establishment of linkages between different languages and enhances their comprehension of various topics.

Cognitive Development: Translanguaging engages students in higher-order thinking processes as they navigate between languages to express their thoughts and ideas. By making connections between languages, students develop cognitive flexibility and problem-solving skills. This cognitive stimulation can enhance students' overall academic performance and prepare them for future learning challenges. Teachers 1 and 3 referred to this point:

Teacher 1: Translanguaging helps language learners develop a deeper understanding of content by connecting new information to their existing knowledge in multiple languages. This cognitive process enhances their comprehension, critical thinking skills, and overall academic performance.

Teacher 3: Exactly. EMI provides students with a real-life context for using English, which enhances their language fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension skills. It also helps them develop critical thinking and problem-solving abilities in English, which are essential for success in higher education or the global job market.

Language Development: Translanguaging provides valuable opportunities for language practice and reinforcement in both the native language and English. Through this process, students can transfer language skills between languages, leading to improved proficiency in both. Additionally, using translanguaging strategies can help students expand their vocabulary, improve grammar structures, and develop more nuanced language abilities. The following teachers pointed out this issue:

Teacher 2: I have worked with students from diverse linguistic backgrounds and have found that translanguaging is a powerful tool for promoting language development and fostering inclusive learning environments.

Teacher 1: Translanguaging is a pedagogical approach that recognizes and values students' multilingual abilities by allowing them to use their full linguistic repertoire to make meaning and communicate effectively. It goes beyond traditional language boundaries and encourages students to draw on their entire language resources to support their learning.

Teacher 5: Additionally, I incorporate explicit language instruction and provide feedback on students' language use. This helps them become more aware of their linguistic strengths and weaknesses, allowing them to make conscious efforts to improve their English proficiency.

Inclusive Learning Environment: Translanguaging supports linguistic diversity and creates a welcoming classroom environment where students feel comfortable expressing themselves in their preferred languages. By acknowledging and valuing students' linguistic backgrounds, translanguaging promotes inclusivity and encourages all learners to actively participate in discussions, group work, and other classroom activities. This inclusive approach fosters a sense of belonging and mutual respect among students from diverse linguistic backgrounds. This issue could be inferred in the following extracts:

Teacher 1: In my classroom, I encourage students to use their native languages alongside English to express themselves, clarify concepts, and engage in discussions. I provide opportunities for students to share their cultural backgrounds and perspectives through their languages, fostering a sense of belonging and mutual respect among peers.

Teacher 4: EMI is an approach where English is used as the primary language of instruction in a non-English speaking environment. It benefits students by immersing them in an English-speaking environment, helping them improve their language skills, and preparing them for future academic or professional endeavors where English is required.

Cultural Understanding: Translanguaging allows students to share their cultural identities, perspectives, and experiences through their languages. By incorporating translanguaging in EMI classes, educators can create opportunities for students to celebrate their cultural heritage, promote cross-cultural communication, and deepen their understanding of different worldviews. This cultural exchange enhances students' empathy, tolerance, and appreciation for linguistic and cultural diversity. The following teacher mentioned in this regard:

Teacher 2: Translanguaging acknowledges that language is a dynamic and fluid tool for communication, and it empowers students to leverage their linguistic diversity as a strength rather than a limitation. By embracing translanguaging, educators can create more inclusive and culturally responsive learning environments that cater to the needs of all learners.

 

Academic Success: Translanguaging can contribute to improved academic performance by enabling students to effectively communicate their ideas, thoughts, and arguments in English. When students are encouraged to use translanguaging strategies, they can demonstrate their understanding of academic content more clearly and confidently. This enhanced communication can improve grades, increase engagement with course materials, and overall academic success. This point is highlighted in the following excerpts:

Teacher 2: I also design activities that promote translanguaging, such as group work, collaborative projects, and peer feedback sessions. By allowing students to freely switch between languages based on their comfort and proficiency levels, I create a supportive and inclusive learning environment where all voices are heard and valued.

Teacher 5: I offer assistance and guidance to aid pupils in progressively shifting from their mother tongue to English. In addition, I employ a diverse range of activities and tools to actively involve students and sustain their motivation to acquire knowledge. By fostering a nurturing and all-encompassing educational setting, students are imbued with a greater sense of self-assurance, enabling them to engage in audacious endeavors and hone their English proficiency.

Figure 1

Functions of implementing translanguaging in EMI classes

 

Confidence Building: Translanguaging empowers students to use their native language alongside English, which can boost their confidence in expressing themselves and participating actively in classroom interactions. When students feel supported in using their preferred languages, they are more likely to engage in discussions, ask questions, and contribute meaningfully to collaborative learning activities. This increased confidence can positively impact students' self-esteem, motivation, and overall learning experience. This is mentioned by the following teachers:

Teacher 2: Additionally, translanguaging builds students' confidence and motivation to engage with challenging tasks, as they can rely on their linguistic resources to express themselves effectively. It also promotes positive attitudes towards language learning and cultural diversity, fostering a sense of pride in students' multilingual identities.

Teacher 3: I agree. In my classes, I create a safe and inclusive environment where students feel comfortable using their native language to clarify doubts, share ideas, or discuss complex topics. This helps them overcome language barriers, build confidence, and engage more actively in the learning process.

In summary, incorporating translanguaging in EMI classes offers a wide range of benefits that support students' language development, cognitive growth, academic success, and socio-cultural understanding. It's clear that these approaches can greatly benefit language learners by providing them with meaningful opportunities to develop their English skills while also valuing their native languages. By embracing translanguaging practices in the classroom, educators can create a dynamic learning environment that values linguistic diversity, promotes inclusive communication, and enhances students' overall learning outcomes. It is evident that embracing students' linguistic diversity through translanguaging can enhance their language development, academic achievement, and overall well-being in educational settings.

4.2.       Negative aspects of implementing translanguaging in EMI classes

It is clear that while translanguaging offers benefits, there are also considerations to keep in mind regarding language development, classroom dynamics, and assessment practices. Translanguaging in EMI classes presents several challenges that educators and students may encounter.

Language development: One significant challenge is the potential for students to become overly reliant on their native language, hindering their English language development. Constantly switching between languages can impede students' ability to fully immerse themselves in English, limiting their opportunities for practice and exposure to the language.

Teacher 1: While translanguaging can offer many benefits in EMI classes, there are some potential drawbacks to consider. One concern is that students may become overly reliant on their native language, hindering their English language development. When students constantly switch between languages, they may struggle to fully immerse themselves in English and may not actively engage in improving their language skills.

Teacher 3: One of the main challenges is the potential overreliance on the native language, which can hinder English language development. When students constantly switch between languages, they may not fully immerse themselves in English, missing out on valuable opportunities for practice and exposure. This can impede their progress in acquiring English language proficiency and fluency.

Language proficiency: Another challenge is the impact on students' language proficiency. Translanguaging may lead to a lack of active engagement in improving English skills, as students may not challenge themselves to develop their language abilities to the same extent as in an English-only environment. This could result in slower progress in acquiring English language proficiency and fluency.

Teacher 2: Translanguaging may lead to a lack of practice and exposure to English, which could impede students' progress in acquiring the language. If students frequently use their native language to understand and communicate in EMI classes, they may not challenge themselves to develop their English skills to the same extent as if they were immersed in an English-only environment. This could potentially limit their language proficiency and fluency in the long run.

Teacher 5: Translanguaging may lead to a lack of active engagement in improving English skills. Students might not feel the need to challenge themselves to develop their language abilities to the same extent as in an English-only environment. Without the motivation to actively engage with English, their progress in language acquisition may be slower.

Student interactions: Translanguaging practices can affect classroom dynamics and student interactions. Students who are not fluent in the dominant language used in translanguaging may feel excluded or marginalized, impacting their sense of belonging and participation in classroom activities. This could create divisions among students based on their language proficiency levels, potentially leading to unequal opportunities for learning and collaboration.

Teacher 2: Another challenge is the impact on classroom dynamics and student interactions. In a translanguaging environment, students who are not fluent in the dominant language used may feel excluded or marginalized. This can create divisions among students based on their language proficiency levels, potentially leading to unequal opportunities for learning and collaboration. It is crucial for educators to foster an inclusive and supportive classroom environment where all students feel valued and included.

Assessment processes: Assessment processes and outcomes may also be challenging in a translanguaging environment. Allowing students to use their native language during assessments can complicate the measurement of English language proficiency and academic abilities. This raises questions about the validity and fairness of assessments and the consistency of grading across diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Teacher 1: Translanguaging could potentially complicate assessment processes and evaluation criteria in EMI classes. If students are allowed to use their native language during assessments, it may be challenging to accurately measure their English language proficiency and academic abilities. This could raise questions about the validity and fairness of assessments, as well as the consistency of grading across diverse linguistic backgrounds.

Teacher 3: Allowing students to use their native language during assessments can complicate the measurement of English language proficiency and academic abilities. It raises questions about the validity and fairness of assessments, as well as the consistency of grading across diverse linguistic backgrounds. Educators need to carefully design assessments that accurately measure students' English language skills while considering their linguistic diversity.

In conclusion, while translanguaging offers benefits in EMI classes, such as facilitating communication and understanding among multilingual students, it also poses challenges related to language development, classroom dynamics, and assessment practices. Educators must carefully consider these challenges and implement strategies to address them effectively to ensure a balanced and inclusive learning environment for all students.

In addressing these challenges, educators can implement strategies to promote balanced and inclusive learning environments. They can establish clear expectations for English language use, provide ample opportunities for English practice and exposure, and create a supportive classroom culture where students feel comfortable taking risks with their language skills. Additionally, educators can design assessments that consider students' linguistic backgrounds while still accurately measuring their English language proficiency. By acknowledging and addressing these challenges, educators can maximize the benefits of translanguaging while ensuring that all students have equal opportunities for language development and academic success in EMI classes.

Figure 2

Major themes on the negative aspects of implementing translanguaging in EMI classes

 

 

 

5.       Discussion

The present study aimed to ascertain English language instructors' perceptions of pedagogical translanguaging in EMI classrooms, and, more importantly, the extent to which these perceptions were manifested in the teachers' reported pedagogical practices. The predominant observation was the evident disparity between the responses to these two inquiries. The study's results align with previous research (e.g., Nambisan, 2014; Pinto, 2020), indicating that teachers held predominantly positive views on translanguaging and recognized its advantages and effectiveness in the classroom. However, consistent with Yuvayapan's (2019) findings, the instructors' positive perceptions were not evident in their teaching methodologies. A favorable perspective on translanguaging does not invariably translate into effective learner-centered educational approaches, as Prilutskaya (2021) observes, "although teachers’ attitudes tend to be powerful mediators of new pedagogical practices in the classroom" (p. 9).

Vaish (2019, p. 287) asserts that the literature on translanguaging hardly addresses the challenges encountered by academics and educators in implementing this pedagogy in the classroom. Carroll and van den Hoven's (2017) experience in the United Arab Emirates exemplifies a situation where participants deemed it too perilous to allow researchers to observe their classes to document and report on their translanguaging techniques. Unlike in-person interviews and observations, the participating instructors in the study were more inclined to express their perspectives and behaviors candidly due to the anonymity afforded via the questionnaire. The persistent institutional pressure to enforce the restrictive "English Only" policy, prohibiting any use of students' L1, is a significant concern articulated by the research participants, compelling them to act contrary to their convictions (Deroo & Ponzio, 2019). Most English Language Teaching policies in Saudi tertiary institutions remain fundamentally rooted in uncritical monolingual ideologies, despite a growing opposition to conventional perspectives that advocate for the isolation of the target language and reference an ideal monolingual speaker (Cenoz & Gorter, 2021, p. 14). (Almayez, 2019; Jenkins, S., 2015). Participants' educational practices aligned with the institutionalized "English-only" regulation may be perceived as a strategy to save their employment by endorsing language practices that contravene this policy, considering their precarious situation as contractual instructors.

 

Besides language policies, educators identified insufficient disclosure regarding students' linguistic origins as an issue hindering the effective implementation of translanguaging in their teaching. Specifically, educators expressed a lack of familiarity with the students' first language in the context of translanguaging. This illustrates the presenters' limited understanding of translanguaging's complex and fluid nature. Researchers have recognized that implementing translanguaging pedagogies does not need educators to be fluent in their students' first language (L1) (Burton & Rajendram, 2019; Deroo & Ponzio, 2019; Flores & García, 2013).
It is indeed true that educators cannot feasibly communicate in every language spoken by their students. Wang (2019) contends that "teachers can establish a classroom ecology in which students' voices and contributions are recognized and esteemed." The instructors' commitment to the "monolingual fallacy," which posits that English Language Teaching (ELT) "should exclusively occur in English" to "optimize language acquisition, regardless of the learner's other linguistic competencies," emerged as an additional obstacle to the adoption of translanguaging, as indicated by the data.

 

The study's outcomes have significant implications for practice and policy.
This study's results underscore the necessity of addressing a pivotal question: how can language education programs and in-service professional development courses facilitate pedagogical translanguaging amidst the pervasive monolingual ideology that adversely affects numerous language teaching and learning practices in this context and similar contexts globally? Primarily, it is essential that these courses and programs intentionally and systematically offer opportunities for preservice teachers to engage in critical reflection and deconstruct the normative assumptions prevalent in numerous educational settings globally, such as English-only policies (Caldas, 2019; Gorter & Arocena, 2020; Ponzio & Deroo, 2021).

 

Introducing students to critically oriented literature and facilitating discussions on bilingualism, multilingualism, plurilingualism, and translanguaging are two methods to do this (Deroo & Ponzio, 2019). Facilitating such discussions can empower educators to challenge monolingual constraints on their practices while informing them of translanguaging's advantages. The enhancement of instructors' linguistic and pedagogical skills is essential to facilitate translanguaging in foreign language instruction, as noted by Wang (2019) (p. 9). It is essential to recognize that, as Deroo and Ponzio (2019, p. 228) state, "destigmatizing language practices beyond English is insufficient." Furthermore, these courses and programs must provide instructors with explicit guidance and present them with practical examples of using translanguaging in the classroom; otherwise, their translanguaging pedagogy will persist in a trial-and-error approach (Wang, 2019, p. 9).

 

Moreover, despite their significance, empowering educators and enhancing their comprehension will not suffice to eradicate monolingual bias and incorporate translanguaging methodologies. In other words, it is inadequate to depend solely on individual educators to advocate for pedagogical translanguaging; explicit guidelines must be formulated (Stille et al., 2016). Consequently, educational authorities, curriculum designers, and policymakers must initially discard antiquated methods that are incongruent with the contemporary globalized, multicultural, and multilingual landscape (Wiley & García, 2016). Consequently, it is imperative to promptly eliminate the prejudiced monolingual policies that undermine the importance of learners' comprehensive language repertoires. Cummins (2007) asserts that "a wide variety of opportunities arise for teaching languages when we free ourselves from exclusive reliance on monolingual instructional approaches" (p. 222). Policymakers must establish formal frameworks and resources within the educational system to support a translanguaging pedagogy and champion egalitarian policies that normalize multilingualism (Rajendram, 2021, p. 23).

 

6.       Conclusion

This study offers policymakers insightful information in the context of higher education in Iraq and other comparable places. It emphasizes how crucial it is to put in place dynamic language policies that can successfully handle the multilingual, multi-semiotic, and diversified nature of English in a variety of academic fields, particularly in taught courses (Airey et al., 2015; Dafous & Smit, 2014). This can help people build specialized literacies in each subject and give them the language skills they need for their local knowledge construction and meaning-making processes and practices (e.g., Kuteeva & Airey, 2014). This work significantly advances the reassessment of the always evolving 'E' in a variety of academic domains and how it ought to be represented in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Specific Purposes (ESP) curricula. At the collegiate level, switching from a general English curriculum to a more focused and specialized one is imperative.

 

 

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