Modeling teacher emotionality and identity through structural equation modeling (SEM): English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in focus
Subject Areas : Curriculum Design and Development
Masoud Mortazavi Nezhad
1
,
Fazlolah Samimi
2
,
Shahram Afraz
3
1 - Ph.D. Candidate, Department of English Language, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran.
2 - Department of English Language, Bandar Abbas Branch. Islamic Azad University, Bandar Abbas, Iran
3 - Department of English Language, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran
Keywords: : Emotionality, Identity, Teacher Emotionality, Teacher Identity,
Abstract :
The term ‘teacher emotions’ is defined as feelings and affections teachers experience in their professional practice. Teacher identity, as the beliefs, values, and perceptions that teachers hold about themselves and their roles, holds paramount importance in the realm of education as it profoundly shapes the teaching and learning process. This study sought to delve into modeling EFL teachers’ emotionality and identity. In so doing, a quantitative correlational design was used. The participants employed included 200 Iranian male and female EFL teachers who were selected from different language institutes of Iran through convenient sampling. To collect the data, the Teacher Emotionality Questionnaire and the Revised Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5) were used. To analyze the data, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was run. As unveiled by the results, positive emotionality (i.e., enjoyment, responsiveness, emotional support and flexibility) was a direct and significant predictor of informational identity. Positive emotionality was a negative and significant predictor of diffuse-avoidant identity. Negative emotionality (i.e., anxiety and burnout) was a significant and negative predictor of informational and normative identity. Negative emotionality was a significant and positive predictor of diffuse-avoidant identity. Congruent with the findings, it is concluded that Iranian EFL teachers are exposed to different kinds of positive and negative emotions. The results also lead to the conclusion that diffuse-avoidant identity aspect is weak in teachers who experience positive emotions. In sum, it is concluded that emotionality and identity aspects are interrelated in EFL teachers. EFL teachers should make attempts to experience more positive emotions than negative ones so that their identity is developed in a positive and authentic direction.
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Curriculum Research | Volume 5, Issue 3 Sept. 20, 2024 | |
Modeling teacher emotionality and identity through structural equation modeling (SEM): English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers in focus | ||
Article info | Abstract |
|
Article Type: | The term ‘teacher emotions’ is defined as feelings and affections teachers experience in their professional practice. Teacher identity, as the beliefs, values, and perceptions that teachers hold about themselves and their roles, holds paramount importance in the realm of education as it profoundly shapes the teaching and learning process. This study sought to delve into modeling EFL teachers’ emotionality and identity. In so doing, a quantitative correlational design was used. The participants employed included 200 Iranian male and female EFL teachers who were selected from different language institutes of Iran through convenient sampling. To collect the data, the Teacher Emotionality Questionnaire and the Revised Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5) were used. To analyze the data, Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was run. As unveiled by the results, positive emotionality (i.e., enjoyment, responsiveness, emotional support and flexibility) was a direct and significant predictor of informational identity. Positive emotionality was a negative and significant predictor of diffuse-avoidant identity. Negative emotionality (i.e., anxiety and burnout) was a significant and negative predictor of informational and normative identity. Negative emotionality was a significant and positive predictor of diffuse-avoidant identity. Congruent with the findings, it is concluded that Iranian EFL teachers are exposed to different kinds of positive and negative emotions. The results also lead to the conclusion that diffuse-avoidant identity aspect is weak in teachers who experience positive emotions. In sum, it is concluded that emotionality and identity aspects are interrelated in EFL teachers. EFL teachers should make attempts to experience more positive emotions than negative ones so that their identity is developed in a positive and authentic direction. | |
Original Research | ||
Authors: | ||
Masoud Mortazavi Nezhad 1 Fazlolah Samimi 2 Shahram Afraz 3 | ||
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| ||
Article History:
Received: 2024.05.19 Accepted: 2024.08.25 Published: 2024.09.20 | ||
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| Keywords: Emotionality, Identity, Teacher Emotionality, Teacher Identity | |
[1] 1. Ph.D. Candidate in TEFL, Department of English Language, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran. mmortazavi409@gmail.com
[2] . Department of English Language, Bandar Abbas Branch. Islamic Azad University, Bandar Abbas, Iran, (Corresponding Author): Fazl.samimi67@gmail.com
[3] . Department of English Language, Qeshm Branch, Islamic Azad University, Qeshm, Iran. Shahram.afraz1352@gmail.com
Emotions refer to complex psychological and physiological reactions to a variety of internal and external factors (Hodges, 2015). Emotions have a dominant role in behaviors, thinking, and general well-being of human. Although several scholars (e.g., Ekman, 1992; Gross, 1998; LeDoux, 1996) have defined emotions differently, there is no definite definition for emotions in the literature. In a popular definition by Ekman (1992), emotions are defined as a short and automatic reaction to a particular event that makes the organism ready for an adaptive response. Emotions are helpful for us in navigating our surrounding environment. As defined by LeDoux (1996), emotions are responses to a threat or reward that are often accompanied with the body activation.
As a sub-category of emotions, teacher emotions refer to different feelings and affections experienced by teachers within their professional life (Uitto et al., 2015). Such emotions can be positively or negatively experienced by teachers during their engagement in their educational work. Teacher emotions are an inevitable part of teaching profession and affect construction of learning experience in teachers and learners. Accordingly, exploring these emotions is an important dimension of educational research and activities (Chen, 2016) because emotions can significantly affect teacher effectiveness, student learning, and general classroom outcomes.
Closely related to teacher emotions, research on English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher emotions as a new area date back to the last decade (Gkonou et al., 2020). It was recently that teacher emotions became the center of focus of researchers in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) (White, 2018). Before that, the main focus of ELT researchers was cognitive factors influencing EFL teaching/learning. This emotional twist (De Costa et al., 2019) in EFL research made the ground ready for exploring emotional factors that impact EFL teaching (White, 2018). As a prevalent theme in teacher emotions research, emotional labor can be referred to. As a leading figure in this regard, Hochschild (1983) referred to emotional labor as a construct relevant to the general service industry. However, in the recent years, researchers have used this framework in studies on EFL teachers based on the belief that it leads to teachers’ emotional burnout, attrition, and exhaustion (Acheson & Nelson, 2020), that influence teachers’ organizational commitment, professional satisfaction, and self-confidence (Nazari & Karimpour, 2022).
A main eye-catching problem in this regard is that although teacher emotions deeply influence EFL teaching, they are still conceived as the opposite of cognition or reason. This partially accounts for lack of sufficient attention by EFL researchers to this research area (Agudo, 2018). However, in fact, as put by Hargreaves (1998), teachers’ emotions are the building blocks of teaching. Thus, delving into teacher emotions can solve several teaching problems. In the same vein, Agudo (2018) believed that teaching is an emotionally-rich profession and investigating teachers’ emotionality in teaching is what provides us with useful insights into how teachers address emotionally-demanding classroom contexts. Therefore, probing teacher emotions is of significance in the field of ELT (e.g., Chen, 2016; Han & Yin, 2016; Uitto et al., 2015). This significance shows itself more prominently when it is noted that teacher emotions can impact teachers’ approach in teaching. More importantly, positive emotions are positively correlated with effective teaching practices, innovative teaching strategies, and positive class communication (Burić & Moe, 2020; Chen, 2019; Wentzel, 2016). Moreover, teacher emotions directly affect student learning because students are more willing to learn in an emotionally positive classroom environment where teachers demonstrate enthusiasm, care, and empathy (Frenzel et al., 2018). This is while, according to Glazzard and Rose (2019), negative teacher emotions like stress and frustration can prevent student learning.
What is more, a worth-noting issue in the literature on teacher emotionality is the relationship between teacher emotionality and identity, as focused by some researchers (Day, 2018). Teacher identity holds paramount importance in the realm of education as it profoundly shapes the teaching and learning process. The beliefs, values, and perceptions that teachers hold about themselves and their roles significantly influence their instructional methods, interactions with students, and overall classroom dynamics. This, in turn, has a direct impact on students' educational experiences and outcomes.
Literature shows that a robust teacher identity can positively impact instructional practices (Golzar, 2020). According to Berzonsky's Identity Styles Theory (1988), individuals take one of three primary identity styles: informational, normative, and diffuse-avoidant, each representing distinct approaches to processing and merging identity-related information. The informational identity style is represented by a proactive involvement in identity-related information, in which people search and critically examine different sources of identity-related knowledge (Berzonsky, 1988). The normative identity style is characterized with sticking to social norms and expectations in developing one's identity (Berzonsky & Kuk, 2022). The diffuse-avoidant identity style is associated with a dissociation from identity exploration, and avoidance towards identity-related matters (Berzonsky, 1988).
Day (2018) highlights that teachers' emotions play a pivotal role in shaping their professional identity, impacting their beliefs, values, and interactions within the educational context. Research in this area reveals how emotions are intertwined with the development and expression of teacher identity. As Frenzel et al. (2016) suggest, teachers' emotional experiences in the classroom are intertwined with their self-concept and professional identity. Positive emotions, such as joy or enthusiasm, can reinforce a teacher's sense of efficacy and commitment to their role. Conversely, negative emotions, like frustration or burnout, can challenge and even erode their professional identity. Therefore, the emotional experiences of teachers can both bolster and disrupt the formation of their teacher identity.
Teacher identity is also shaped by the emotional labor required in the profession. Emotional labor refers to the effort teachers invest in managing their emotions to meet the expectations of their role (Day, 2018). As observed by Hargreaves (2000), the emotional labor involved in teaching can lead to a dissonance between the teacher's authentic self and their professional persona. This dissonance can impact how teachers perceive their identity, causing tension between their true emotions and the emotions they display in the classroom. As mentioned by Fried et al. (2015) emotionality can influence a teacher's pedagogical practices and interactions with students. Teachers who are emotionally attuned to their students can create more supportive and empathetic learning environments. The work of Sutton and Wheatley (2003) highlights the importance of emotional intelligence in teaching. Teachers who understand and manage their emotions effectively can build stronger teacher-student relationships, which can, in turn, enhance the learning experience and student outcomes.
To sum up, Zembylas (2003) indicates that the relationship between teacher emotionality and identity is intricate and bidirectional. Emotions can impact the development and expression of teacher identity, affecting a teacher's self-concept, emotional labor, and pedagogical practices. Therefore, recognizing this relationship is crucial for educators, teacher preparation programs, and policymakers, as it can inform strategies for supporting teachers in developing positive and authentic professional identities while managing the emotional demands of their role. Although, as explained above, the relationship between teachers’ emotionality and their identity has been documented in the literature, this is a research area which suffers research scarcity. With a view to the paramount role of emotionality and identity in teachers’ teaching effectiveness, professional development and job satisfaction, this scarcity can impose heavy costs on EFL teaching systems via the mediating role of such factors as teachers’ self-concept, emotional labor, and pedagogical practices. In To fill this gap, this study sought to explore what quantitative model of teacher emotionality and identity finds fit indices through running SEM through the following research question:
1. What quantitative model of teacher emotionality and identity finds fit indices through running SEM?
2. Review of the Related Literature
Through reviewing the existing literature, the researchers found that just few studies have addressed the relationship between teachers’ emotionality and identity which are presented in this section. Esmaeili et al. (2019) conducted a study to explore how the emotions experienced by EFL instructors affect different aspects of their identity development. Using a Constant-Comparative Approach, they analyzed data gathered from interviews, classroom observations, and teachers' diaries. The study revealed that teachers' emotional experiences significantly impact their professional identity and instructional approaches, and these effects vary across different educational settings. Nazari and Karimpour (2022) conducted a study that explored the impact of emotional labor on the development of English language teacher identities in Iran, using an activity theory framework. The analysis of the data revealed that teachers' emotional labor and identity formation were influenced by specific institutional characteristics in three distinct ways. Firstly, teachers grappled with emotional labor when they had to navigate conflicts stemming from their personal experiences and the identities they embraced. Secondly, they encountered emotional labor when balancing their commitment to students with externally imposed identities. Lastly, teachers experienced emotional labor when aligning their agency with identities that faced resistance.
Further, Nazari et al. (2023) conducted a study that delved into the emotional experiences of Young Learner English (YLE) teachers in Iran and how these emotions influenced the development of their professional identities. The researchers collected data using a variety of methods, including semi-structured interviews, classroom activity observations, post-instruction discussions, and the application of narrative frames. The analysis of the collected data revealed that the emotions and professional identities of the teachers were intricately shaped by a range of ecological factors operating at the micro, meso, and macro levels within the teaching environment. These ecological factors had diverse effects on the emotional challenges faced by the teachers and also played a pivotal role in shaping their professional identities in relation to the discourses, individuals involved, and unique aspects of teaching YLE.
Ordoño’s (2023) master’s thesis focused on investigating how the evolvement and divergent contexts shape the emotions, emotional labor, and identity of university EFL teachers throughout various stages of their careers in Japan. Specifically, this research study sought to delineate (1) the impact of sociocultural, institutional, and individual contexts on the emotions, emotional labor, and identity of tertiary-level EFL teachers, (2) the potential interconnectedness of the concepts of emotion, emotional labor, and identity, and (3) the disparities in emotions, emotional labor, and identities among novice, mid-career, and experienced teachers. Employing an explanatory sequential research design, this study collected quantitative data utilizing The Emotional Labor of Teaching Scale, the English Language Teacher Professional Identity Scale. Moreover, the qualitative data were collected through the use of semi-structured interview questions. Data were collected over a span of two months from 35 tertiary-level EFL teachers from diverse contexts. This investigation contributes to theoretical research on the influence of contextual factors on teachers' identities and emotions, as well as practical discussions on how to mitigate emotional labor to enhance teacher well-being.
3. Methodology
Table 1.
Demographic Features of the Participants
No. | 200 |
Gender | 150 males & 50 females |
Age | 40 to 55 |
Native Language | Persian |
Major | Applied Linguistics and English Language and Literature |
Experience | More than 10 years |
Education | 100 B.A., 80 M.A., 20 Ph.D. |
To assist research ethics, written consent was taken from the participants for their cooperation in this study. Moreover, they were ensured about anonymity and confidentiality of their personal information.
To collect the required data, the EFL Teachers’ Emotionality Questionnaire (Appendix A) was developed by Mortazavi et al. (in-press) in 30 Likert items in six sub-scales including enjoyment, anxiety, burnout, responsiveness, emotional support, and flexibility was employed. The Cronbach’ s Alpha reliability of the questionnaire was calculated .70 and its construct validity was supported by exploratory factor analysis (Mortazavi et al., in-press). As mentioned in the previous lines, it is a researcher-made questionnaire whose reliability and validity were confirmed through Cronbach’ s Alpha test and exploratory factor analysis. According to the results of exploratory factor analysis, all 30 items of this questionnaire were adequately and sufficiently loaded on their respective factors including 1. Enjoyment, 2. Anxiety, 3. Burnout, 4. Responsiveness, 5. Emotional Support, and 6. Flexibility. The participants’ identity aspects were assessed with the Revised Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5) (Appendix B), developed and validated by Berzonsky et al. (2013). In this version, 27 items are scaled on a five-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much like me). It consists of three sub-scales including informational identity (9 items), normative identity (9 items), and diffuse-avoidant identity (9 items). Berzonsky et al. (2013) reported the Cronbach’ s Alpha reliability of the ISI-5 .77 and confirmed its construct validity through factor analysis.
Data collection procedure was launched with selecting the sample, and briefing them on the aim of the study. Thereafter, the Google links of the EFL Teachers’ Emotionality Questionnaire and the ISI-5 were sent to the participants via social networks including WhatsApp and Telegram to be filled. In order to model the relationship between EFL teachers' emotionality and identity aspects, structural equation modelling (SEM) available in the AMOS 24 package was used.
4. Findings
After checking skewness and kurtosis for univariate normality and Mardia's coefficient to ensure multivariate normality assumption, the maximum likelihood estimation method was used to run the model. Table 2 presents the results of the measurement part of the model of EFL teachers' emotionality.
The Measurement Model of EFL Teachers' Emotionality
Latent Variables | Indicators | B | ß | S.E | T | P |
Positive Emotionality | Enjoyment | 1* | 0.83 |
|
| 0.0001 |
Responsiveness | 1.06 | 0.64 | 0.10 | 11.58 | 0.0001 | |
Emotional support | 1.35 | 0.70 | 0.13 | 13.05 | 0.0001 | |
Flexibility | 0.98 | 0.87 | 0.07 | 10.58 | 0.0001 | |
Negative Emotionality | Anxiety | 1 | 0.91 |
|
| 0.0001 |
Burnout | 0.83 | 0.74 | 0.06 | 12.46 | 0.0001 |
The Structural Model of EFL Teachers' Emotionality and Identity
Predictors | Dependent Variables | B | ß | S.E | T | P |
Positive Emotionality | Informational Identity | 0.57 | 0.48 | 0.13 | 9.16 | 0.0001 |
Normative Identity | 0.13 | 0.09 | 0.08 | 2.43 | 0.07 | |
Diffuse–Avoidant Identity | -0.44 | -0.35 | 0.11 | -8.29 | 0.0001 | |
Negative Emotionality | Informational Identity | -0.78 | -0.39 | 0.05 | -8.96 | 0.0001 |
Normative Identity | -0.37 | -0.17 | 0.19 | -4.76 | 0.03 | |
Diffuse–Avoidant Identity | 0.63 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 7.13 | 0.001 |
Figure 1. The structural equation model of EFL teachers' emotionality and identity
Fit Indices of Structural Equation Model of EFL Teachers' Emotionality and Identity
| X2/df | GFI | AGFI | CFI | TLI | RMSEA | PCLOSE |
Fit indices | 2.19 | 0.95 | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.93 | 0.07 | 0.31 |
Acceptable fit indices | < 3 | > 0.90 | > 0.90 | > 0.90 | > 0.90 | < 0.08 | > 0.05 |
5. Discussion and Conclusion
The findings are congruent with the studies by Esmaeili et al. (2019), Nazari and Karimpour (2022), and Nazari et al. (2023) wherein it was proved that EFL teachers’ identity formation is significantly interacted and correlated with their emotional experiences.
To explain the results, the self as an important component of identity and identity formation has an emotional dimension. That is why some earliest identity theorists (e.g., Burke, 1991) recognized that emotions emerged out of the identity process. Moreover, acceptance or lack of acceptance of one’ s thinking or behaviors by others which constitutes an inevitable part of identity formation arises some negative or positive emotions in individuals which in turn lead to new behaviors or thinking styles in the future. This can also account for the significant prediction power of emotions in predicting identity aspects. This argument is so strong that it has been put forth as a thesis in identity theory: others’ reactions influence our emotions and emotions stimulate new behaviors or thoughts (McCall & Simmons, 1978).
The results can also be interpreted referring to the thesis that identity non-verification arouses some negative emotions which become the roots of new negative behaviors or actions in new situations which in turn serve as the building blocks of new self or identity dimensions (Burke & Stets, 2009). Conversely, identity verification triggers positive emotions which encourage new positive identity aspects in future events. In this sense, the relationship between emotions and identity is dynamic, complex, non-linear and mutual. Emotions emerge from fulfilling (or failing to fulfill) the behavioral expectations tied to an identity and simultaneously trigger new behaviors connected to an identity.
Moreover, the self-meanings that define or guide an identity are intermingled with emotions which are positive or negative in nature. Individuals attach different meanings to different events in different situations. These meanings are rooted in their emotions and cannot be conceived as separate from them. Meaning attachment and emotions are interwoven. Last but not least, the role of others in identity formation can account for the relationship between identity and emotions. That is, the ties between identity and emotions (positive or negative) “is rooted in Cooley’s looking glass self in which individuals feel pride or shame depending upon whether they think others evaluate them in a positive or negative way” (Stets & Trettevik, 2020, p. 36).
Congruent with the findings, it is concluded that Iranian EFL teachers are exposed to different kinds of positive and negative emotions. The positive emotions they experience include enjoyment, responsiveness, emotional support and flexibility. Moreover, anxiety and burnout are experienced by them in the form of negative emotions. It is also concluded that it is more likely that those teachers who experience more positive emotions (i.e., enjoyment, responsiveness, emotional support and flexibility) than negative ones (i.e., anxiety and burnout) benefit from informational identity aspect. Furthermore, the results lead to the conclusion that diffuse-avoidant identity aspect is weak in teachers who experience positive emotions. In accordance with the results, informational and normative identity is not strong in the teachers who suffer from anxiety and burnout. In this group of teachers, diffuse-avoidant identity is salient. In sum, it is concluded that emotionality and identity aspects are interrelated in EFL teachers.
The results have some pedagogical implications for EFL teachers, teacher preparation programs, and policymakers. Based on the insights taken from the results, teachers should make attempts to experience more positive emotions than negative ones. In this way, their identity is developed in a positive and authentic direction. Teacher preparation programs should be equipped with plans and instructions whose mission is enhancement of positive emotions in student teachers as a useful strategy to build a more positive and conducive identity in them. Policy makers can develop polices to prioritize a healthy identity formation in EFL teachers through injecting positive emotions in them.
References
Acheson, K., & Nelson, R. (2020). Utilising the emotional labour scale to analyse the form and extent of emotional labour among foreign language teachers in the US public school system. In C. Gknonou, J.M. Dewaele, & J. King (Eds.), The emotional rollercoaster of language teaching (pp. 31-52). Multilingual Matters. https://doi.org/10.21832/GKONOU8335
Agudo, J. D. D. (2018). Introduction and overview. In J. D. D. Martínez Agudo (Ed.), Emotions in second language teaching: Theory, research and teacher education (pp. 1-16). Springer. http://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3
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Appendix A: Iranian EFL Teachers’ Emotionality Questionnaire
5=Agree | 4=Slightly agree | 3=Moderate | 2=Slightly disagree | 1=Disagree | Items | Elements | Column |
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| I enjoy teaching. | Enjoyment | 1 |
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| Teaching is so enjoyable that I happily prepare myself before coming to the class. | 2 | |
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| I am usually happy when I am teaching. | 3 | |
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| I usually teach with enthusiasm. | 4 | |
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| I sometimes feel nervous in teaching. | Anxiety | 5 |
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| I am anxious that I cannot teach well. | 6 | |
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| Becoming prepared for teaching makes me anxious. | 7 | |
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| I feel anxious when I go to crowded classes. | 8 | |
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| I feel emotionally exhausted in teaching. | Burnout | 9 |
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| I feel that students’ annoyance overwhelms me. | 10 | |
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| I feel tired after each class. | 11 | |
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| I feel it too difficult to work with students. | 12 | |
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| I feel absurdity in teaching. | 13 | |
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| Teaching job is not interesting for me. | 14 | |
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| I respond to my students’ needs. | Responsiveness | 15 |
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| I respond to my students’ concerns. | 16 | |
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| I respond to my students’ questions. | 17 | |
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| I respond to my students’ wants. | 18 | |
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| I give emotional support to my students. | Emotional support | 19 |
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| I respect my students. | 20 | |
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| I listen to my students’ sayings carefully. | 21 | |
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| I show empathy and sympathy toward my students. | 22 | |
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| I give positive feedback to my students. | 23 | |
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| I have mutual interaction with my students. | 24 | |
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| I am flexible in my teaching. | Flexibility | 25 |
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| I make my students engaged in teaching affairs. | 26 | |
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| I ask my students’ views on my teaching methods. | 27 | |
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| I ask my students’ views on my assessment methods. | 28 | |
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| I ask my students’ views on my classroom management. | 29 | |
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| I ask my students’ views on the content of instructional materials. | 30 |
Appendix B: Revised Identity Style Inventory (ISI-5)
4=Slightly agree | 3=Moderate | 2=Slightly disagree | 1=Disagree | Items | Elements | Column | |
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| When personal problems arise, I try to delay acting as long as possible | Diffuse-avoidant identity | 1 |
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| I’m not sure where I’m heading in my life; I guess things will work themselves out. | 2 | |
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| My life plans tend to change whenever I talk to different people. | 3 | |
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| Who I am changes from situation to situation. | 4 | |
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| I try not to think about or deal with problems as long as I can. |
| 5 |
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| I try to avoid personal situations that require me to think a lot and deal with them on my own. |
| 6 |
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| When I have to make a decision, I try to wait as long as possible in order to see what will happen. |
| 7 |
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| It doesn’t pay to worry about values in advance; I decide things as they happen. |
| 8 |
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| I am not really thinking about my future now, it is still a long way off. |
| 9 |
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| When making important decisions, I like to spend time thinking about my options. | Informational identity
| 10 |
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| When facing a life decision, I take into account different points of view before making a choice. | 11 | |
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| It is important for me to obtain and evaluate information from a variety of sources before I make important life decisions. | 12 | |
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| When making important decisions, I like to have as much information as possible. | 13 | |
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| When facing a life decision, I try to analyze the situation in order to understand it. |
| 14 |
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| Talking to others helps me explore my personal beliefs. |
| 15 |
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| I handle problems in my life by actively reflecting on them. |
| 16 |
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| I periodically think about and examine the logical consistency between my values and life goals. |
| 17 |
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| I spend a lot of time reading or talking to others trying to develop a set of values that makes sense to me. |
| 18 |
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| I automatically adopt and follow the values I was brought up with. | Normative identity | 19 |
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| I think it is better to adopt a firm set of beliefs than to be open-minded. | 20 | |
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| I think it’s better to hold on to fixed values rather than to consider alternative value systems. | 21 | |
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| When I make a decision about my future, I automatically follow what close friends or relatives expect from me. | 22 | |
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| I prefer to deal with situations in which I can rely on social norms and standards. | 23 | |
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| I have always known what I believe and don’t believe; I never really have doubts about my beliefs. | 24 | |
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| I never question what I want to do with my life because I tend to follow what important people expect me to do. |
| 25 |
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| When others say something that challenges my personal values or beliefs, I automatically disregard what they have to say. |
| 26 |
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| I strive to achieve the goals that my family and friends hold for me. |
| 27 |