مروری بر بیماری های منتقله از آب: ریسک فاکتورها و شیوه‌های پیشگیری
محورهای موضوعی : شیمی و مهندسی شیمی کلیه گرایش هامحمد صفری 1 , احمد اصل هاشمی 2 , مهران دولتخواه 3 , غلامحسین صفری 4
1 - 1- دانشکده پزشکی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد کرمان، کرمان، ایران
2 - گروه آموزش بهداشت محیط دانشگاه علوم پزشکی تبریز
3 - گروه مهندسی بهداشت محیط، دانشکده بهداشت، دانشگاه علوم پزشکی تبریز
4 - گروه مهندسی بهداشت محیط، دانشکده بهداشت، دانشگاه علوم پزشکی تبریز، تبریز، ایران
کلید واژه: آب, آلودگی آب, بیماری ناشی از آب, بهسازی, شیوه‌های پیشگیری,
چکیده مقاله :
آب برای حیات انسان و سلامتی عمومی ضروری است زیرا تا 60 درصد از بدن انسان بالغ را آب تشکیل می‌دهد. با این حال، بسیاری از جمعیت جهان به آب آشامیدنی کافی و سالم دسترسی ندارند. از طرفی آب آلوده می‌تواند باعث گسترش بیماری و ایجاد مسمومیت شود. شایع‌ترین بیماری‌های منقله از آب، بیماری‌های اسهالی مانند وبا، حصبه، پاراتیفوئید، سالمونلا، ژیاردیازیس و کریپتوسپوریدیوزیس می‌باشند. همچنین خطرات بهداشتی ممکن است ناشی از ترکیبات شیمیایی و رادیواکتیو آب باشد. در واقع، برخی از مواد شیمیایی محلول در آب در نتیجه فرآیندهای طبیعی، ممکن است مواد ضروری برای مصارف خوراکی باشند و برخی ممکن است در غلظت‌های بیشتر از حد مجاز مضر باشند. از جمله این ترکیبات می‌توان به انواع فلزات مختلف، مواد آلی سنتتیک و عناصر ضروری از قبیل فلوراید، ید و سلنیوم اشاره کرد. به همین دلیل است که کیفیت آب آشامیدنی یک نگرانی جهانی برای سلامتی به ویژه در کشورهای در حال توسعه است. این مطالعه مروری با هدف مروری بر تحقیقات کنونی و گذشته در زمینه بیماری‌های منتقله از آب و مهم‌تر از همه عوامل مؤثر و ریسک فاکتورهای مرتبط، شیوه‌های پیشگیری و در نهایت شناسایی شکاف های بالقوه در مطالعات مربوط به بیماری های منتقله از آب انجام شد. بررسی متون نشان داد که آب آشامیدنی ناسالم و عدم دسترسی به امکانات بهسازی و بهداشتی اولیه، از عوامل اصلی شیوع بیماری‌های منتقله توسط آب می‌باشند. بهبود وضعیت آب آشامیدنی، امکانات بهسازی و بهداشتی مناسب به ویژه دفع بهداشتی مدفوع منجر به کاهش بیماری‌های منقله از آب می‌شود.
Water is essential for human life and public health because up to 60% of the adult human body is made up of water. However, much of the world's population does not have access to sufficient and safe drinking water. The most common waterborne diseases are diarrheal diseases such as cholera, typhoid, paratyphoid, salmonella, giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis. Also, health risks may be caused by chemical and radioactive compounds of water. In fact, some chemicals dissolved in water may be essential substances for food consumption, and some may be harmful in higher than permissible concentrations. These compounds can include various metals, synthetic organic materials and essential elements such as fluoride, iodine and selenium. This is why drinking water quality is a global health concern, especially in developing countries. This review study was conducted with the aim of reviewing the current and past researches in the field of waterborne diseases and most importantly the effective factors in transmitted diseases as well as methods of prevention and finally identifying potential gaps in studies related to waterborne diseases. The review of the literature showed that unsafe water and lack of access to basic sanitation facilities are the main causes of the outbreak of water-borne diseases. Improving drinking water conditions, proper sanitary facilities, especially sanitary disposal of feces, leads to the reduction of water-borne diseases.
[1] Newton, D.E., 2016, The Global Water Crisis: A Reference Handbook: A Reference Handbook: ABC-CLIO.
[2] Manetu, W.M., Karanja, A.M., 2021, Waterborne disease risk factors and intervention practices: A review. Open Access Library Journal. 8(5): p. 1-11.
[3] Beaudeau, P., Lessons, al., 2008, learned from ten investigations of waterborne gastroenteritis outbreaks, France, 1998–2006. Journal of Water and Health. 6(4): p. 491-503.
[4] Blasi, M.F., Water-related, al., 2008, diseases outbreaks reported in Italy. Journal of water and health. 6(3): p. 423-432.
[5] Craun, M.F., Waterborne, al., 2006, outbreaks reported in the United States. Journal of water and health. 4(S2): p. 19-30.
[6] Nyangwencha, J., 2012, Access to Safe Drinking Water and Water-Borne Diseases in Masaba North District, Kenya. in Scientific Conference Proceedings.
[7] Njiru, P., Omuterema, S., Lilechi, D., 2016, Sanitation in relation to prevalence of waterborne diseases in Mbeere, Embu County. Kenya. IOSR J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. Food Technol. 10(5): p. 59-65.
[8] Pruss-Ustun, A., Organization, W.H., 2008, Safer water, better health: costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to protect and promote health. World Health Organization.
[9] J, G., 2014, Water and Health. Air Water Borne Diseases. 3(2).
[10] Tamene, N.M., Menkir, S.P., Kebede, A.P., 2002, Prevalence of intestinal parasite infections and parasitological quality of drinking water and its handling practices in gursum town, oromia region, ethiopia.
[11] Naik, P.K., 2017, Water crisis in Africa: myth or reality? International journal of water resources development. 33(2): p. 326-339.
[12] Batterman, S., et. al., 2009, Sustainable control of water-related infectious diseases: a review and proposal for interdisciplinary health-based systems research. Environmental health perspectives. 117(7): p. 1023-1032.
[13] Mack, A. Choffnes, E.R., 2009, Global issues in water, sanitation, and health: workshop summary: National Academies Press.
[14] Organization, W.H., 2008, Communicable disease risk assessment and interventions: post-election emergency: Kenya February. World Health Organization.
[15] Lifewater, Global Water and Sanitation Crisis. https://lifewater.org., 2019.
[16] Organization, W.H.,2018, Guidelines on sanitation and health.
[17] Supply, W.U.J.W., Programme, S.M., 2015, Progress on sanitation and drinking water: 2015 update and MDG assessment: World Health Organization.
[18] You, D., et al., 2015, United Nations Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation (UN IGME). Global, regional, and national levels and trends in under-5 mortality between 1990 and 2015, with scenario-based projections to 2030: a systematic analysis by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child Mortality Estimation. Lancet. 386(10010): p. 2275-2286.
[19] (WHO), W.H.O., 2022, Sanitation. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/sanitation.
[20] Howard, G., et al., 2020, Domestic water quantity, service level and health.
[21] Stanwell-Smith, R., 2009, Classification of water-related disease. Water and Health. 1: p. 66.
[22] Funari, E., et al., 2011, Technical guidance on water-related disease surveillance: World Health Organization. Regional Office for Europe.
[23] Unicef, 2008, UNICEF handbook on water quality. United Nations Childrens Fund, New York/USA.
[24] Cheesbrough, M., 2005, District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2: Cambridge university press.
[25] Nwabor, O.F., et al., 2016, Water and waterborne diseases: a review. Int. J. Trop. Dis. Health,. 12(4): p. 1-14.
[26] Luby, S.P., et al., 2005, Effect of handwashing on child health: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 366(9481): p. 225-233.
[27] Rabie, T., Curtis, V., 2006, Handwashing and risk of respiratory infections: a quantitative systematic review. Tropical medicine & international health. 11(3): p. 258-267.
[28] Cairncross, S., 2003, Handwashing with soap–a new way to prevent ARIs?, Citeseer. p. 677-679.
[29] Fraser, A.S., Robarts, R.D., Hodgson, K.M., 2001, The United Nations Environment Programme Global Environment Monitoring System/Water Programme. Water Resources IMPACT. 3(2): p. 26-28.
[30] Organization, W.H., 2007, The International Network to promote household water treatment and safe storage. Combating waterborne disease at the household level. Geneva: World Health Organization.
[31] Fadhil, M., Ismail, M., Tosepu. , R.,2021, An Impact of Climatic Change on Water-borne Diseases: A Review. in IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. IOP Publishing.
[32] Gholami-Borujen, F., Zazouli, M.A., Fallahi, S., 2018, A review of the effects of climate change with an emphasis on burden of waterborne diseases. Iranian Journal of Health Sciences.
[33] Olajuyigbe, A.E., et al., 2012, Spatial analysis of factors responsible for incidence of water borne diseases in Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Society. 1(4): p. 96-113.
[34] Cifuentes, E., et al., 2002, Diarrheal diseases in children from a water reclamation site in Mexico city. Environmental Health Perspectives. 110(10): p. A619-A624.
[35] Nafi’u, A., 2015, The Occurence of Waterborne diseases in drinking water in Nakaloke Sub-County, Mbale District Uganda.
[36] Al-Ghamdi, M.A., Bentham, G., Hunter, P.R., 2009, Environmental risk factors for diarrhoea among male schoolchildren in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia. Journal of water and health. 7(3): p. 380-391.
[37] Fewtrell, L., et al., 2005, Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions to reduce diarrhoea in less developed countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet infectious diseases. 5(1): p. 42-52.
[38] Garrett, V., et al., 2008, Diarrhoea prevention in a high-risk rural Kenyan population through point-of-use chlorination, safe water storage, sanitation, and rainwater harvesting. Epidemiology & Infection. 136(11): p. 1463-1471.
[39] Arnold, B.F., Colford, J.M., 2007, Treating water with chlorine at point-of-use to improve water quality and reduce child diarrhea in developing countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene. 76(2): p. 354-364.
[40] Fonyuy, B.E., 2014, Prevalence of water borne diseases within households in the Bamendankwe Municipality-North West Cameroon. Journal of Biosafety & Health Education.
[41] Sobsey, M., Handzel, T., Venczel, L., 2003, Chlorination and safe storage of household drinking water in developing countries to reduce waterborne disease. Water science and Technology. 47(3): p. 221-228.
[42] Fonyuy, B.E., Innocent, M.L., 2014, Prevention practices from water borne diseases within households in the Bamendankwe Municipality-North West Cameroon. Global Journal of Medical Research. 14(5): p. 24-35.
[43] Brooks, J.T., et al., 2003, Epidemiology of sporadic bloody diarrhea in rural Western Kenya. The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene. 68(6): p. 671-677.
