Assessing Soil Physical Health in Sanjaabi Plain of Kermanshah Province Using Soil Quality Indices by the Method of Principal Components Analysis
Subject Areas : Optimal management of water and soil resourcesNava Kianian 1 , Afsaneh Alinezhadian Bidabadi 2 , Parviz Shekaari 3
1 - Ph.D. Candidate, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran.
2 - Associate Professor, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Lorestan University, Khoramabad, Iran.
3 - Assistant professor, Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran.
Keywords: Soil physical quality, Principal component analysis, Soil quality index,
Abstract :
Introduction: Soil compaction is one of the worst signs of soil physical collapse, which has multiple effects on reducing its physical quality. On the other hand, parameters such as aggregate stability, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and porosity, which are the most important indicators of soil physical quality, are usually more vulnerable to improper management due to the environmental conditions of arid and semi-arid areas. In recent decades, due to not being in tune with new technology, farmers have turned to more use of machines and agricultural chemicals in order to increase production. One of the consequences of improper land management is the compaction of the bottom layer of the plowing depth, which can be seen in almost every part of the land in Kermanshah province in recent years. This study was done as a first step in investigating this problem.
Methods: Sanjaabi plain of Kermanshah with an area of about 67,000 hectares was considered as the study area. The number of 102 points was determined by a simple systematic method. Disturbed samples were taken from the two surface layers and the bottom of the plow, as well as undisturbed samples were taken by metal cylinders from the depth of the plow pan. After Laboratory analyses, the aggregate stability was checked in both dry and wet conditions. Statistical analysis was determined using SPSS statistical software. The correlation coefficient was obtained by the Pearson method along with the correlation test. Cumulative quality indices (IQI) and Nemoro quality indices (NQI) were obtained in two collections of total data (TDS) and minimum data (MDS) through the method of principal component analysis (PCA). Then, variography and zoning of soil quality indicators were done for the spatial evaluation of soil quality using kriging method.
Results: In the surface layer and bottom of the plow, 10 and 8 principal components were able to estimate 85.02 and 80.18 percent of the total variance, respectively. The IQI correlation coefficient of the total data set with the minimum data set in the surface layer and bottom of the plow were 0.76 and 0.61, respectively, and the Nemoro index was 0.72 and 0.58 respectively. A spherical model was fitted to all the soil quality indicators in two minimum and total data sets in two surface layers of the soil and the bottom of the plow and showed a strong spatial correlation. The parts from the north to the northwest as well as the northeast of the region had higher quality soil. Other parts of the region have low to medium quality soil due to heavy tillage, reduction of organic matter, reduction of stability of aggregate and then increase of bulk density and soil compaction.
Conclusion: In general, the nature of the soil, due to the decisive effect of the parent materials, has caused a uniform type, which was evident in the texture, calcareousness and mineralogy of the clay part. Continuous and intensive agricultural operations have fueled this uniformity. In the areas with high amounts of clay in the surface layer of the soil, due to the flocculating of clay and organic matter and the subsequent increase in the aggregate stability, the quality of the soil was more suitable. But in the bottom of the plow, continuous cultivation in the region has caused the soil to become even more dense due to the low amounts of organic carbon and high amounts of clay. The results of the correlation studies showed that MDS can be used with acceptable reliability instead of TDS in the soil quality assessment in the two layers of the surface and bottom of the plow. This confidence was less in the plowing bottom, which is probably due to the excessive destruction of the soil structure as a result of its compaction and homogenization.
Andrews, S. S., Karlen, D. L., & Cambardella, C. A. (2004). The soil management assessment framework: A quantitative soil quality evaluation method. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 68,1945–1962.#
Bahrami, A., Emadodin, I., Ranjbar- Atashi, M. & Rudolf-Bork, H. (2010). Land Use Change and Soil Degradation: A Case Study, North of Iran. Agric. Biol. J. North. Amer. 1: 4. 600-605.#
Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A note on the multiplying factors for various chi square approximations. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296–298.#
Beylich, A., Oberholzer, H. R., Schrader, S., Höper, H., & Wilke, B. M. (2010). Evaluation of soil compaction effects on soil biota and soil biological processes in soils. Soil and Tillage Research, 109(2),133-143.#
Cambardella, C. A., Moorman, T. B., Novak, J. M., Parkin, T. B., Karlen, D. L., Turco, R. F. & Koropaka, A. E. (1994). Field-scale variability of soil properties in centeral Iowa soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58: 1501-1511.#
De Leenheer, L., & De Boodt, M. (1959). Determination of aggregate stability by the change in mean weight diameter. Mededelingen van landbouwhoge school en de opzoeking stations van de staat te Gent 24: 290–300.#
Doran, J.W. & Parkin, B.T. (1994). Defining and assessing soil quality. In: Doran, J.W., Coleman, D.C., Bezdicek D.F., Stewart, B.A. (Eds.), Defining Soil Quality for a Sustainable Environment. Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, WI, USA, pp. 3–21. Special Publication. No. 35.#
Edling, P., & Fergedal, L., (1972). Experiments on soil compaction 1968±69. Agricultural College of Sweden, Uppsala, Division of Soil Management, Report 31, 71 pp. (in Swedish).#
Eynard, A., Schumacher, T. E., Lindstrom, M. J. & Malo, D. D. (2004). Aggregate sizes and stability in cultivated South Dakota prairie Ustolls and Usterts. Soil Science Society of American Journal 68: 1360-1365.#
Gallaher, R. N., Weldon, C. O., & Boswell, F. C. (1976). A semiauto-mated procedure for total nitrogen in plant and soil samples. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 40, 887–889.#
Geological report. 1999. Geological map 1:100000 of Kermanshah province. Mineral exploration organization of the country. Ministry of Power.#
Hair, J. F., Black, B., Babin, B., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.). New Jersy: Prentice Hall.#
Kaiser, H. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31–36.#
Kianian, N., & Shekaari, P. (2018). Investigating the spatial changes of several surface soil chemical properties in the Sandjaabi plain of Kermanshah province. The first international conference and the third national conference on sustainable resource management Soil and environment.#
Kline, R. B. 2005. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2th ed.). New York: Guilford.#
Liu, R. X., Kuang, J., Gong, Q., & Hou, X. L. (2003). Principal component regression analysis with SPSS. Computer methods and programs in biomedicine, 71(2), 141-147.#
McDonald, T. (2015). SDrawNPS: A version of the SDraw R package developed for the National Park Service. [https://github.com/tmcd82070/SDrawNPS]#
Nori, N., Rostaminia, M., Keshavarzi, A. & Rahmani, A. (2019). Quantitative Evaluation and Zoning of Spatial Distribution of Soil Quality Index in Some Parts of Arid and Semi-Arid Lands of Western Iran (Case Study: Kane Sorkh Region, Ilam Province), Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research (IJSWR) 50(7): 1701-1719. (In Persian with English abstract)#
Page, A. L., Miller, R. H., & Jeeney, D. R. (1992a). Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 1. Physical properties. SSSA Pub., Madison. 1750 p.#
Page, A. L., Miller, R. H., & Jeeney, D. R. (1992b). Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. Chemical and mineralogical properties. SSSA Pub., Madison. 1159 p.#
Pagliai, M., Marsili, A., Servadio, P., Vignozzi, N., & Pellegrini, S. (2003). Changes in some physical properties of a clay soil in central Italy following the passage of rubber tracked and wheeled tractors of medium power. Soil and Tillage Research, 73, 119–129.#
Pallant, J. (2005) SPSS survival manual: a step by step guide to data analysis using spss. Buckingham: Allen & unwin.
Panayiotopoulos, K., Papadopoulou, C., & Hatjiioannidou, A. (1994). Compaction and penetration resistance of an Alfisol and Entisol and their influence on root growth ofmaize seedlings. Soil Till Res, 31, 323–337.#
Pankhurst, C.E., Doube, B.M., & Gupta,V.R. (1997). Biological indicators of soil health.CAB International, Walingford, UK.#
Petelkau, H. (1984). Effects of harmful compaction on soil properties and crop yields and measures to reduce compaction. Tagungsber. Akad. Landwirtsch, Wiss. Berlin 227, 25±34 (in German with English summary).#
Pieri C. J. M. G. 1992. Fertility of Soils: A Future for Farming in the West African Savannah. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.#
Presley, D. R., Ransom, M. D., Kluitenberg, G. J. & Finnell, P. R. (2004). Effect of thirty years irrigation on the genesis and morphology of two semiarid soils in Kansas. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. J. 68: 1916-1926.#
Qi, Y., Darilek, J. L., Huang, B., Zhao, Y., Sun, W., & Gu, Z. (2009). Evaluating soil quality indices in an agricultural region of Jiangsu Province, China. Geoderma, 149(3-4), 325-334.#
Qin, M. Z., & Zhao, J. (2000). Strategies for sustainable use and characteristics of soil quality changes in urban-rural marginal area: a case study of Kaifeng. Acta Geogr. Sin, 55, 545–554.#
R. Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing. ISBN 3-900051-07-0. Available: http://www.R- project.org.#
Richard, G., Cousin, I., Sillon, J.F., Bruand, A., & Gue´rif, J. (2001). Effect of compaction on soil porosity: consequences on hydraulic properties. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 52, 49–58.#
Schnurr-Putz, S., Guggenberger, G., & Kusell, K. (2006). Compaction of forest soil by logging machinery favours occurrence of prokaryotes. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 58, 503–516.#
Shahab Arkhazloo, H. & Emami, H. (2012). Quantitative evaluating the effects of land use conversion on soil quality of southern Mashhad area. Journal of Soil Management and Sustainable Production, 2(2) :69-87.#
Shakouri-Katigari, M., Shabanpour, M., Davatgar, N., & Vazifeh-Doost, M. (2020). Assessment of Soil Quality in Paddy Soils with Different Yields (A Case Study: Kouchsfahan, Guilan Province(. Iranian Journal of Soil and Water Research, 51(12), PP 317.#
Sharma, S. (1996). Applied multivariable techniques. New York : John Wiley and Sons.#
Sojka, R. E., & Upchurch, D. R. (1999). Reser-vations regarding the soil quality concept. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J, 63,1039–1054.#
Voorhees, W. (1983). Relative effectiveness of tillage and natural forces in alleviating wheel-induced soil compaction. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 47(1), 129-133.#
Yao, R. J., Yang, J. S., Zhao, X. F., Li, X. M., & Liu, M. X. (2013). Determining minimum data set for soil quality assessment of typical salt-affected farmland in the coastal reclamation area. Soil and Tillage Research, 128, 137–148.#