The Effects of Anthropogenic Noise on Aquatic Animals: With an Emphasis on Foraging Behaviour
Subject Areas : nosie
Saeed
Shafiei Sabet
1
(Assistant Professor, Fisheries Department, Faculty of Natural Resources, Sowmeh Sara, postcode: 1144, University of Guilan, Iran. *(Corresponding Authours))
Keywords: Noise pollution, fish, Biology, Foraging behaviour,
Abstract :
Backgroun and Objective:Noise pollution caused by human activities is one of the types of environmental pollution. Anthropogenic noise level is increasing in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. Human activities have acoustically changed aquatic environments over the past decades and anthropogenic noise is now recognized as a ubiquitous pollutant in terrestrial and aquatic habitats. Shipping activities, wind mills, pile driving, seismic surveys, naval sonars and fisheries activities are all accompanied by the introduction of anthropogenic sounds in the water. Method: Here, we investigate how anthropogenic noise impairs behaviour and foraging activities, which has direct and indirect consequences for aquatic species survival and reproductive success. Findings: While a broad range of direct destruction caused by human activities in terrestrial and aquatic habitats is relatively well understood, there is a lack of knowledge about such activities on wildlife and captive species. For example, in laboratory condition, elevated sound levels may affect predator-prey interactions. We still have little understanding of the potentially negative consequences of noise pollution for aquatic life. Discussion and conculation: Changes in foraging tendency and efficiency may directly and indirectly affect relative species abundance of both predator and prey and induce changes at the community level.
References:
Barber, J. R., Crooks, K. R., & Fristrup, K. M., 2010. The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25(3), 180–189.
Slabbekoorn, H., Bouton, N., van Opzeeland, I., Coers, A., ten Cate, C., & Popper, A. N. 2010. A noisy spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends in Ecology and Evolution.
Simpson, S. D., Purser, J., & Radford, A. N. 2015. Anthropogenic noise compromises antipredator behaviour in European eels. Global Change Biology, 21(2), 586–593.
Warren, P. S., Katti, M., Ermann, M., & Brazel, A. 2006. Urban bioacoustics: It’s not just noise. Animal Behaviour, 71(3), 491–502.
Normandeau Associates, I. 2012. Effects of noise on fish, fisheries, and invertebrates in the U.S. Atlantic and Arctic from energy industry sound-generating activities. Workshop Report December 2012, (December), 80.
Shannon, G., Mckenna, M. F., Angeloni, L. M., Crooks, K. R., Fristrup, K. M., Brown, E., … Wittemyer, G. 2015. A synthesis of two decades of research documenting the effects of noise on wildlife. Biological Reviews, 24.
Morley, E. L., Jones, G., & Radford, A. N. 2014. The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 281(1776), 20132683.
Gagliano, M., McCormick, M. I., & Meekan, M. G. 2007. Temperature-induced shifts in selective pressure at a critical developmental transition. Oecologia, 152(2), 219–225.
Small, C., & Nicholls, R. J. 2003. Palm Coastal Zones. Journal of Coastal Research, 19(3), 584–599.
Davenport, J., & Davenport, J. L. 2006. The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 67(1–2), 280–292.
Slabbekoorn, H., & Halfwerk, W. 2009. Behavioural Ecology: Noise Annoys at Community Level. Current Biology, 19(16), R693–R695.
Harley, C. D. G., Hughes, A. R., Hultgren, K. M., Miner, B. G., Sorte, C. J. B., Thornber, C. S., … Williams, S. L. 2006. The impacts of climate change in coastal marine systems. Ecology Letters, 9(2), 228–241.
Simpson, S. D., Jennings, S., Johnson, M. P., Blanchard, J. L., Sch??n, P. J., Sims, D. W., & Genner, M. J. 2011. Continental shelf-wide response of a fish assemblage to rapid warming of the sea. Current Biology, 21(18), 1565–1570.
Hughes, A. R., Mann, D. A., & Kimbro, D. L. 2014. Predatory fish sounds can alter crab foraging behaviour and influence bivalve abundance. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281, 20140715.
Bejder, L., Samuels, A., Whitehead, H., Finn, H., & Allen, S. 2009. Impact assessment research: Use and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 395, 177–185.
Galhardo, L., Vital, J., & Oliveira, R. F. 2011. The role of predictability in the stress response of a cichlid fish. Physiology and Behavior, 102(3–4), 367–372.
Barton, B. A. 2002. Stress in Fishes: A Diversity of Responses with Particular Reference to Changes in Circulating Corticosteroids. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42(3), 517–525.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Neo, Y. Y., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2015. The effect of temporal variation in sound exposure on swimming and foraging behaviour of captive zebrafish. Animal Behaviour, 107, 49-60.
Voellmy, I. K., Purser, J., Flynn, D., Kennedy, P., Simpson, S. D., & Radford, A. N. 2014. Acoustic noise reduces foraging success in two sympatric fish species via different mechanisms. Animal Behaviour, 89, 191–198.
Bracciali, C., Campobello, D., Giacoma, C., & Sarà, G. 2012. Effects of nautical traffic and noise on foraging patterns of mediterranean Damselfish (Chromis chromis). PLoS ONE, 7(7).
Pen, O., Magnhagen, C., Johansson, K., & Sigray, P. 2017. Effects of motorboat noise on foraging behaviour in Eurasian perch and roach: a field experiment, 564, 115–125.
Payne, N. L., van der Meulen, D. E., Suthers, I. M., Gray, C. A., & Taylor, M. D. 2014. Foraging intensity of wild mulloway Argyrosomus japonicus decreases with increasing anthropogenic disturbance. Marine Biology, 162(3), 539–546.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Wesdorp, K., van Dooren, D., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Sound affects behavior of captive zebrafish: Always consider the potential for acoustic effects on your laboratory tests, 27, 10010.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Neo, Y.Y. and Slabbekoorn, H., 2016. Impact of anthropogenic noise on aquatic animals: from single species to community-level effects. In The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II. Springer, New York, NY, 957-961.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Van Dooren, D., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Son et lumiere: Sound and light effects on spatial distribution and swimming behavior in captive zebrafish. Environmental Pollution, 212, 480–488.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Wesdorp, K., Campbell, J., Snelderwaard, P., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Behavioural responses to sound exposure in captivity by two fish species with different hearing ability. Animal Behaviour, 116.
Purser, J., & Radford, A. N. 2011. Acoustic noise induces attention shifts and reduces foraging performance in three-spined sticklebacks (gasterosteus aculeatus). PLoS ONE, 6(2).
Sivle, L. D., Wensveen, P. J., Kvadsheim, P. H., Lam, F. A., Visser, F., Curé, C., … Miller, P. J. O. 2016. Naval sonar disrupts foraging in humpback whales, 562, 211–220.
Isojunno, S., Cur, C., Kvadsheim, P. H., Lam, F. P. A., Tyack, P. L., Wensveen, P. J., & Miller, P. J. O. M. 2016. Sperm whales reduce foraging effort during exposure to 1-2 kH z sonar and killer whale sounds. Ecological Applications, 26(1), 77–93.
Friedlaender, A. S., Tyson, R. B., Stimpert, A. K., Read, A. J., & Nowacek, D. P. 2013. Extreme diel variation in the feeding behavior of humpback whales along the western Antarctic Peninsula during autumn. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 494(December), 281–289.
Wale, M. a., Simpson, S. D., & Radford, A. N. 2013. Noise negatively affects foraging and antipredator behaviour in shore crabs. Animal Behaviour, 86(1), 111–118.
Candolin, U., & Wong, B. B. M. 2012. Behavioural Responses to a Changing World: Mechanisms and Consequences. Biotropica (Vol. 30).
Kunc, H. P. 2012. Review of Behavioural responses to a changing world. Animal Behaviour, 84(6), 1596–1597.
Tuomainen, U., & Candolin, U. 2011. Behavioural responses to human-induced environmental change, 640–657.
Siemers, B. M., & Schaub, A. 2011. Hunting at the highway: traffic noise reduces foraging efficiency in acoustic predators. Proceedings. Biological Sciences / The Royal Society, 278(1712), 1646–1652.
Schaub, A., Ostwald, J., & Siemers, B. M. 2008. greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis)Foraging bats avoid noise. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 211(Pt 19), 3174–3180.
Luo, J., Siemers, B. M., & Koselj, K. 2015. How anthropogenic noise affects foraging. Global Change Biology, 21(9), 3278–3289.
Takahashi, T. T. 2010. How the owl tracks its prey – II, 3399–3408.
Goerlitz, H. R., & Siemers, B. M. 2007. Sensory ecology of prey rustling sounds : acoustical features and their classification by wild Grey Mouse, (Nekaris 2005), 143–153.
Page, R. A., & Ryan, M. J. 2005. Flexibility in assessment of prey cues : frog-eating bats and frog calls, (April), 841–847.
Schnitzler, H., Moss, C. F., & Denzinger, A. 2003. From spatial orientation to food acquisition in echolocating bats, 18(8), 386–394.
Lima, S. L., & Bednekoff, P. A. 1999. Back to the basics of antipredatory vigilance: can nonvigilant animals detect attack? Animal Behaviour, 58(1984), 537–543.
Quinn, J., J. Whittingham, M., J. Butler, S., & Cresswell, W. 2006. Noise, predation risk compensation and vigilance in the chaffinch Fringilla coelebs. Journal of Avian Biology, 37(6), 601–608.
Smith, R. 1986. Evolution of alarm signals: role of benefits of retaining group members or territorial neighbors. The American Naturalist, 128(4), 604–610.
Lemon, W. C. 1991. Fitness consequences of foraging behaviour in the zebra finch. Nature, 352(February), 153–155.
Wright, a J., Hatch, L. T., Aguilar Soto, N., Kakuschke, a, Baldwin, a L., Lusseau, D., Martin, V. 2007. Anthropogenic noise as a stressor in animals: A multidisciplinary perspective. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 20, 250–273.
Charmandari, E., Tsigos, C., & Chrousos, G. 2005. endocrinology of the stress response. Annual Review of Physiology, 67(1), 259–284.
Mendl, M. 1999. Performing under pressure: Stress and cognitive function. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 65(3), 221–244.
De Kloet, E. R., Oitzl, M. S., & Joëls, M. 1999. Stress and cognition: Are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends in Neurosciences.
Lupien, S. J., & McEwen, B. S. 1997. The acute effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Integration of animal and human model studies. Brain Research Reviews.
Chan, A. A. Y. H., & Blumstein, D. T. 2011. Attention, noise, and implications for wildlife conservation and management. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 131(1–2), 1–7.
Brumm, H., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2005. Acoustic Communication in Noise. Advances in the Study of Behavior.
Quinn, J. L., Whittingham, M. J., Butler, S. J., Cresswell, W., & Noise, W. 2006. Noise , predation risk compensation and vigilance in the chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, 6.
Gouveia, M., Borges, M., Costa, J., & Carneiro, A. V. 2004. Burden of disease from hypercholesterolemia in Portugal. Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia : Orgao Oficial Da Sociedade Portuguesa de Cardiologia = Portuguese Journal of Cardiology : An Official Journal of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology, 23(2), 255–270.
Brumm, H. 2014. Fish struggle to be heard--but just how much fin waving is there? A comment on Radford et al. Behavioral Ecology, 25(5), 1033–1034.
Francis, C. D., & Barber, J. R. 2013. A framework for understanding noise impacts on wildlife: an urgent conservation priority. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(6), 305–313.
Kight, C. R., Saha, M. S., & Swaddle, J. P. 2012. Anthropogenic noise is associated with reductions in the productivity of breeding Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis). Ecological Applications, 22(7), 1989–1996.
Kight, C. R., & Swaddle, J. P. 2011. How and why environmental noise impacts animals: An integrative, mechanistic review. Ecology Letters, 14, 1052–1061.
Francis, C. D., Kleist, N. J., Ortega, C. P., & Cruz, A. 2012. Noise pollution alters ecological services: enhanced pollination and disrupted seed dispersal. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
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Barber, J. R., Crooks, K. R., & Fristrup, K. M., 2010. The costs of chronic noise exposure for terrestrial organisms. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 25(3), 180–189.
Slabbekoorn, H., Bouton, N., van Opzeeland, I., Coers, A., ten Cate, C., & Popper, A. N. 2010. A noisy spring: The impact of globally rising underwater sound levels on fish. Trends in Ecology and Evolution.
Simpson, S. D., Purser, J., & Radford, A. N. 2015. Anthropogenic noise compromises antipredator behaviour in European eels. Global Change Biology, 21(2), 586–593.
Warren, P. S., Katti, M., Ermann, M., & Brazel, A. 2006. Urban bioacoustics: It’s not just noise. Animal Behaviour, 71(3), 491–502.
Normandeau Associates, I. 2012. Effects of noise on fish, fisheries, and invertebrates in the U.S. Atlantic and Arctic from energy industry sound-generating activities. Workshop Report December 2012, (December), 80.
Shannon, G., Mckenna, M. F., Angeloni, L. M., Crooks, K. R., Fristrup, K. M., Brown, E., … Wittemyer, G. 2015. A synthesis of two decades of research documenting the effects of noise on wildlife. Biological Reviews, 24.
Morley, E. L., Jones, G., & Radford, A. N. 2014. The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 281(1776), 20132683.
Gagliano, M., McCormick, M. I., & Meekan, M. G. 2007. Temperature-induced shifts in selective pressure at a critical developmental transition. Oecologia, 152(2), 219–225.
Small, C., & Nicholls, R. J. 2003. Palm Coastal Zones. Journal of Coastal Research, 19(3), 584–599.
Davenport, J., & Davenport, J. L. 2006. The impact of tourism and personal leisure transport on coastal environments: A review. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 67(1–2), 280–292.
Slabbekoorn, H., & Halfwerk, W. 2009. Behavioural Ecology: Noise Annoys at Community Level. Current Biology, 19(16), R693–R695.
Harley, C. D. G., Hughes, A. R., Hultgren, K. M., Miner, B. G., Sorte, C. J. B., Thornber, C. S., … Williams, S. L. 2006. The impacts of climate change in coastal marine systems. Ecology Letters, 9(2), 228–241.
Simpson, S. D., Jennings, S., Johnson, M. P., Blanchard, J. L., Sch??n, P. J., Sims, D. W., & Genner, M. J. 2011. Continental shelf-wide response of a fish assemblage to rapid warming of the sea. Current Biology, 21(18), 1565–1570.
Hughes, A. R., Mann, D. A., & Kimbro, D. L. 2014. Predatory fish sounds can alter crab foraging behaviour and influence bivalve abundance. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281, 20140715.
Bejder, L., Samuels, A., Whitehead, H., Finn, H., & Allen, S. 2009. Impact assessment research: Use and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 395, 177–185.
Galhardo, L., Vital, J., & Oliveira, R. F. 2011. The role of predictability in the stress response of a cichlid fish. Physiology and Behavior, 102(3–4), 367–372.
Barton, B. A. 2002. Stress in Fishes: A Diversity of Responses with Particular Reference to Changes in Circulating Corticosteroids. Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42(3), 517–525.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Neo, Y. Y., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2015. The effect of temporal variation in sound exposure on swimming and foraging behaviour of captive zebrafish. Animal Behaviour, 107, 49-60.
Voellmy, I. K., Purser, J., Flynn, D., Kennedy, P., Simpson, S. D., & Radford, A. N. 2014. Acoustic noise reduces foraging success in two sympatric fish species via different mechanisms. Animal Behaviour, 89, 191–198.
Bracciali, C., Campobello, D., Giacoma, C., & Sarà, G. 2012. Effects of nautical traffic and noise on foraging patterns of mediterranean Damselfish (Chromis chromis). PLoS ONE, 7(7).
Pen, O., Magnhagen, C., Johansson, K., & Sigray, P. 2017. Effects of motorboat noise on foraging behaviour in Eurasian perch and roach: a field experiment, 564, 115–125.
Payne, N. L., van der Meulen, D. E., Suthers, I. M., Gray, C. A., & Taylor, M. D. 2014. Foraging intensity of wild mulloway Argyrosomus japonicus decreases with increasing anthropogenic disturbance. Marine Biology, 162(3), 539–546.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Wesdorp, K., van Dooren, D., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Sound affects behavior of captive zebrafish: Always consider the potential for acoustic effects on your laboratory tests, 27, 10010.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Neo, Y.Y. and Slabbekoorn, H., 2016. Impact of anthropogenic noise on aquatic animals: from single species to community-level effects. In The Effects of Noise on Aquatic Life II. Springer, New York, NY, 957-961.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Van Dooren, D., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Son et lumiere: Sound and light effects on spatial distribution and swimming behavior in captive zebrafish. Environmental Pollution, 212, 480–488.
Shafiei Sabet, S., Wesdorp, K., Campbell, J., Snelderwaard, P., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2016. Behavioural responses to sound exposure in captivity by two fish species with different hearing ability. Animal Behaviour, 116.
Purser, J., & Radford, A. N. 2011. Acoustic noise induces attention shifts and reduces foraging performance in three-spined sticklebacks (gasterosteus aculeatus). PLoS ONE, 6(2).
Sivle, L. D., Wensveen, P. J., Kvadsheim, P. H., Lam, F. A., Visser, F., Curé, C., … Miller, P. J. O. 2016. Naval sonar disrupts foraging in humpback whales, 562, 211–220.
Isojunno, S., Cur, C., Kvadsheim, P. H., Lam, F. P. A., Tyack, P. L., Wensveen, P. J., & Miller, P. J. O. M. 2016. Sperm whales reduce foraging effort during exposure to 1-2 kH z sonar and killer whale sounds. Ecological Applications, 26(1), 77–93.
Friedlaender, A. S., Tyson, R. B., Stimpert, A. K., Read, A. J., & Nowacek, D. P. 2013. Extreme diel variation in the feeding behavior of humpback whales along the western Antarctic Peninsula during autumn. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 494(December), 281–289.
Wale, M. a., Simpson, S. D., & Radford, A. N. 2013. Noise negatively affects foraging and antipredator behaviour in shore crabs. Animal Behaviour, 86(1), 111–118.
Candolin, U., & Wong, B. B. M. 2012. Behavioural Responses to a Changing World: Mechanisms and Consequences. Biotropica (Vol. 30).
Kunc, H. P. 2012. Review of Behavioural responses to a changing world. Animal Behaviour, 84(6), 1596–1597.
Tuomainen, U., & Candolin, U. 2011. Behavioural responses to human-induced environmental change, 640–657.
Siemers, B. M., & Schaub, A. 2011. Hunting at the highway: traffic noise reduces foraging efficiency in acoustic predators. Proceedings. Biological Sciences / The Royal Society, 278(1712), 1646–1652.
Schaub, A., Ostwald, J., & Siemers, B. M. 2008. greater mouse-eared bat (Myotis myotis)Foraging bats avoid noise. The Journal of Experimental Biology, 211(Pt 19), 3174–3180.
Luo, J., Siemers, B. M., & Koselj, K. 2015. How anthropogenic noise affects foraging. Global Change Biology, 21(9), 3278–3289.
Takahashi, T. T. 2010. How the owl tracks its prey – II, 3399–3408.
Goerlitz, H. R., & Siemers, B. M. 2007. Sensory ecology of prey rustling sounds : acoustical features and their classification by wild Grey Mouse, (Nekaris 2005), 143–153.
Page, R. A., & Ryan, M. J. 2005. Flexibility in assessment of prey cues : frog-eating bats and frog calls, (April), 841–847.
Schnitzler, H., Moss, C. F., & Denzinger, A. 2003. From spatial orientation to food acquisition in echolocating bats, 18(8), 386–394.
Lima, S. L., & Bednekoff, P. A. 1999. Back to the basics of antipredatory vigilance: can nonvigilant animals detect attack? Animal Behaviour, 58(1984), 537–543.
Quinn, J., J. Whittingham, M., J. Butler, S., & Cresswell, W. 2006. Noise, predation risk compensation and vigilance in the chaffinch Fringilla coelebs. Journal of Avian Biology, 37(6), 601–608.
Smith, R. 1986. Evolution of alarm signals: role of benefits of retaining group members or territorial neighbors. The American Naturalist, 128(4), 604–610.
Lemon, W. C. 1991. Fitness consequences of foraging behaviour in the zebra finch. Nature, 352(February), 153–155.
Wright, a J., Hatch, L. T., Aguilar Soto, N., Kakuschke, a, Baldwin, a L., Lusseau, D., Martin, V. 2007. Anthropogenic noise as a stressor in animals: A multidisciplinary perspective. International Journal of Comparative Psychology, 20, 250–273.
Charmandari, E., Tsigos, C., & Chrousos, G. 2005. endocrinology of the stress response. Annual Review of Physiology, 67(1), 259–284.
Mendl, M. 1999. Performing under pressure: Stress and cognitive function. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 65(3), 221–244.
De Kloet, E. R., Oitzl, M. S., & Joëls, M. 1999. Stress and cognition: Are corticosteroids good or bad guys? Trends in Neurosciences.
Lupien, S. J., & McEwen, B. S. 1997. The acute effects of corticosteroids on cognition: Integration of animal and human model studies. Brain Research Reviews.
Chan, A. A. Y. H., & Blumstein, D. T. 2011. Attention, noise, and implications for wildlife conservation and management. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 131(1–2), 1–7.
Brumm, H., & Slabbekoorn, H. 2005. Acoustic Communication in Noise. Advances in the Study of Behavior.
Quinn, J. L., Whittingham, M. J., Butler, S. J., Cresswell, W., & Noise, W. 2006. Noise , predation risk compensation and vigilance in the chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, 6.
Gouveia, M., Borges, M., Costa, J., & Carneiro, A. V. 2004. Burden of disease from hypercholesterolemia in Portugal. Revista Portuguesa de Cardiologia : Orgao Oficial Da Sociedade Portuguesa de Cardiologia = Portuguese Journal of Cardiology : An Official Journal of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology, 23(2), 255–270.
Brumm, H. 2014. Fish struggle to be heard--but just how much fin waving is there? A comment on Radford et al. Behavioral Ecology, 25(5), 1033–1034.
Francis, C. D., & Barber, J. R. 2013. A framework for understanding noise impacts on wildlife: an urgent conservation priority. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 11(6), 305–313.
Kight, C. R., Saha, M. S., & Swaddle, J. P. 2012. Anthropogenic noise is associated with reductions in the productivity of breeding Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia sialis). Ecological Applications, 22(7), 1989–1996.
Kight, C. R., & Swaddle, J. P. 2011. How and why environmental noise impacts animals: An integrative, mechanistic review. Ecology Letters, 14, 1052–1061.
Francis, C. D., Kleist, N. J., Ortega, C. P., & Cruz, A. 2012. Noise pollution alters ecological services: enhanced pollination and disrupted seed dispersal. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.
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