The Role of Materials in Teaching Listening Strategies in Computer-based and Text-based Classes: EFL Learners' Listening Comprehension and Cognitive Load in Focus
Subject Areas : Curriculum Design and Development
Maral Katal
1
,
Mojgan Rashtchi
2
*
,
Arshya Keyvanfar
3
1 - Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language, NT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2 - Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language, NT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
3 - Department of Teaching English as a Foreign Language, NT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Keywords: Cognitive Functioning, Computer-based and Text-based Classes, Learning Materials, Listening Comprehension, Listening Strategies,
Abstract :
Listening effectively in a foreign language presents many challenges for students. The aims of this convergent mixed methods study were two-fold. First, to determine whether teaching listening strategies through materials tailored to apply principles related to decreasing Cognitive Load (CL) could help learners improve their L2 listening comprehension. Second, whether using such materials could reduce learners' cognitive load. In doing so, two modes of material presentation (computer-based and text-based) were selected. Eighty-eight TEFL bachelor students in three intact classes were randomly assigned to three treatment conditions: Strategy-Based Cognitive-Load-Decreasing Computer-Based Material (SB-CLD-CBM), Strategy-Based Cognitive-Load-Decreasing Text-Based Material (SB-CLD-TBM), and Strategy-Based Non-Cognitive-Load Decreasing Conventional Learning Material (SB-NCLD-CLM), and received relevant instructions. A general proficiency test was used to examine participants' language proficiency. A listening pretest and posttest, a listening achievement test, and a cognitive load questionnaire were used to collect data in the quantitative phase. A reflection paper, including two questions about students' perceptions administered during the treatment, was used to gather qualitative data. The One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) showed that CLD-CBM and CLD-TBM outperformed the NCLD-CLM in listening comprehension and experienced lower cognitive load. However, no significant difference was found between the experimental groups. The findings are valuable for teachers and materials developers, suggesting they should include Cognitive Load Theory principles and strategy instruction when designing learning materials and instructional approaches.
Baddeley, A. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2
Bechtel, W., & Abrahamsen, A. (1991). Connectionism and the mind: An introduction to parallel processing in networks. Blackwell.
Best, J. W., & Kahn, J. V. (2006). Research in education (10th ed.). Pearson.
Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research. Houghton Mifflin.
Chamot, A. (2004). Issues in language learning strategy research and teaching. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 1(1), 14–26.
Chang, C. C., Lei, H., & Tseng, J. S. (2014). Do English listening outcome and cognitive load change for different media delivery modes in u-learning? International Association for the Development of the Information Society.
Chen, L., Huang, T-W., & Chen, Y-H. (2017). The effects of inquiry-based information literacy instruction on memory and comprehension: A longitudinal study. Library & Information Science Research, 39(4), 256–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lisr.2017.11.003
Chen, O., Paas, F., & Sweller, J. (2023). A cognitive load theory approach to defining and measuring task complexity through element interactivity. Educational Psychology Review, 35, Article 63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09782-w
Diao, Y., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2007). The effect of written text on comprehension of spoken English as a foreign language. The American Journal of Psychology, 120(2), 237–261. https://doi.org/10.2307/20445397
Dong, A., Jong, M., & King, R. (2020). How does prior knowledge influence learning engagement? The mediating roles of cognitive load and help-seeking. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1–10, Article 591203. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.591203
Dunning, D. L., & Holmes, J. (2014). Does working memory training promote the use of strategies on untrained working memory tasks? Memory & Cognition, 42(6), 854– 862. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13421-014-0410-5
Endres, T., Lovell, O., Morkunas, D., Rieß, W., & Renkl, A. (2022). Can prior knowledge increase task complexity?–cases in which higher prior knowledge leads to higher intrinsic cognitive load. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(S2), 305– 317. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12563
Field, J. (2008). Listening in the language Classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Ghalandar-Zehi, B., Rahmanpanah, H., & Mohseni, A. (2024). Exploring inner voice in the EFL classroom: From materials development perspective. Curriculum Research, 5(4), 1–25. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.71703/cure.2024.1130467
Genç, H., & Gulozer, K. (2013). The effect of cognitive load associated with instructional formats and types of presentation on second language reading comprehension performance. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 12(4), 171– 182.
Goh, C., & Vandergrift, L. (2021). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429287749
Goh, C. C. (2023). Learners' cognitive processing problems during comprehension as a basis for L2 listening research. System, 119, Article 103164.
Haghighi, M., Rashtchi, M., & Birjandi, P. (2019). Exploring the role of strategic knowledge and strategic regulation in Iranian EFL learners' listening performance: A structural equation modeling approach. Journal of Language and Translation, 9(3), 121–136. https://dorl.net/dor/20.1001.1.20088590.2019.9.3.9.1
Hart, S. G., & Staveland, L. E. (1988). Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of empirical and theoretical research. In P.A. Hancock & N. Meshkati (Eds.), Human mental workload (pp.139–183). North- Holland. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62386-9
He, L., & Jiang, Z. (2020). Assessing second language listening over the past twenty years: A review within the socio-cognitive framework. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 2123.
Jiang, D. (2024). Cognitive load theory and foreign language listening comprehension. Springer.
Katz-Buonincontro, J. (2024). Convergent mixed methods designs. In J. Katz- Buonincontro (Ed.), How to mix methods: A guide to sequential, convergent, and experimental research designs (pp.73–82). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000404-005
Leahy, W., & Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory, modality of presentation and the transient information effect. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1787
Lehmann, J., & Seufert, T. (2020). The interaction between text modality and the learner's modality preference influences comprehension and cognitive load. Frontiers in Psychology. 10, Article 2820. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02820
Liu, H., Liu, Z., Yuan, M., & Chen, T. (2024). The effect of cognitive load on code- switching. International Journal of Bilingualism, 28(3), 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069231170142
Lwande, Ch., Muchemi, L., & Oboko, R. (2021). Identifying learning styles and cognitive traits in a learning management system. Heliyon, 7(1), Article e07701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07701
Macedo-Rouet, M., Rouet, J.-F., Epstein, I., & Fayard, P. (2003). Effects of online reading on popular science comprehension. Science Communication, 25(2), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1075547003259209
Macaro, E. (2001). Analysing student teachers? Code switching in foreign language classrooms: Theories and decision making. The Modern Language Journal, 85(4), 531–548. https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00124
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2021). Second language research: Methodology and design (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003188414
Masrai, A. (2020). Exploring the impact of individual differences in aural vocabulary knowledge, written vocabulary knowledge and working memory capacity on explaining L2 learners' listening comprehension. Applied Linguistics Review, 11(3), 423–447.
McGrew, K. S. (2022). The cognitive-affective-motivation model of learning (CAMML): Standing on the shoulders of giants. Canadian Journal of School Psychology, 37(1), 117–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/08295735211054270
McNamara, D. S., & Scott, J. L. (2001). Working memory capacity and strategy use. Memory & Cognition, 29(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03195736
Moussa‐Inaty, J., Ayres, P., & Sweller, J. (2012). Improving listening skills in English as a foreign language by reading rather than listening: A cognitive load perspective. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26(3), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1840
Nilforoushan, S., Rashtchi, M., & Abbasian, Gh. (2024). The role of text type on the use of metacognitive reading strategies: Iranian EFL learners' perceptions in focus. Curriculum Research, 5(1), 99–120. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.71703/cure.2024.1107725
Paas, F., & Van Merrienboer, J.J.G. (2020). Cognitive load theory: Methods to manage working memory load in the learning of complex tasks. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 394–398. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922183
Peng, P., & Fuchs, D. (2017). A randomized control trial of working memory training with and without strategy instruction: Effects on young children's working memory and comprehension. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 50(1), 62–80. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219415594609
Purwanto, D., Fadhly, F.Z., & Rahmatunisa, W. (2021). Listening comprehension study: Difficulties and strategies used by college students. Indonesian Journal of Learning and Instruction, 4(1), 55–62. https://doi.org/10.25134/ijli.v4i1.4345
Retnowati, R., Suharyati, H., Manurung, R., Maknun, D., Armariena, D. N., Hetilaniar, H., Hasanudin, C., Murniviyanti, L., Anwar, S., & Setyorini, R. (2018). The Effect of environmental teaching method and the level of natural intelligence on the environmental view of the students' behavior. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1114(1), 1–7, Article 012104. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742- 6596/1114/1/012104
Richards, J. C., & Sandy, C. (2014). Passages level 1 student's book. Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, J., Chamot, A. U., Harris, V., & Anderson, N. J. (2007). Intervening in the use of strategies. In A. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 141–160). Oxford University Press.
Satori, M. (2021). Effects of working memory on L2 linguistic knowledge and L2 listening comprehension. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(5), 1313–1340. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716421000345
Sayyadi, M. (2019). The cognitive load of listening activities of a cognitive-based listening instruction. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 202–216.
Shadish, W. R., Cook, T. D., & Campbell, D. T. (2002). Experimental and quasi- experimental designs for generalized causal inference. Houghton Mifflin.
Subkoviak, M. (2005). Empirical investigation of procedures for estimating reliability of mastery tests. Journal of Educational Measurement. 15, 111–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3984.1978.tb00062.x
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285.
Sweller, J. (2016). Cognitive load theory, evolutionary educational psychology, and instructional design. In D. C. Geary & D. B. Berch (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on child development and education (pp. 291–306). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29986-0_12
Sweller, J. (2020). Cognitive load theory and educational technology. Education TechnologyResearch & Development, 68(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09701-3
Sweller, J. (2023). The development of cognitive load theory: Replication crises and incorporation of other theories can lead to theory expansion. Educational Psychology Review, 35(4), Article 95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09817-2
Sweller, J., Ayres, P., & Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive load theory. Springer. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-1-4419-8126-4_7
Sweller, J., Van Merrienboer, J.J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 261– 292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2013). Using multivariate statistics. Pearson.
Vandergrift, L. (1997). The Cinderella of communication strategies: Reception strategies in interactive listening. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 494–505. https://doi.org/10.2307/328892
Vandergrift, L. (2004). Listening to learn or learning to listen? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24, 3–25.
Vandergrift, L., & Cross, J. (2018). Metacognitive listening strategies. In J. I. Liontas (Eds.), The TESOL Encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–6). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0567
Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. C. M. (2012). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. Routledge.
Vandergrift, L., & Tafaghodtari, M. (2010). Teaching L2 learners how to listen does make a difference: An empirical study. Language Learning, 60(2), 470–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2009.00559.x
Xie, W., Campbell, S., & Zhang, W. (2020). Working memory capacity predicts individual differences in social distancing compliance during the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 117(30),17667–17674. https://doi.org/ 10.31234/osf.io/3j69f