Trace Metals Concentration Study in Feathers of Laughing Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) for Pollution Monitoring in Central Iran (Case Study: Yazd City)
Subject Areas :
Environmental Toxicology
Hesan
Akhavan Ghalibaf
1
(M.Sc., Environmental Engineering, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran *(Corresponding Author))
Mohamad Hosein
Iran Nejad Parizi
2
(Assistant Professor, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran)
Farhad
Nejadkoorki
3
(Associate Professor, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental, Yazd University and Member of Environment Science and Technology Research Center of Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Science, Yazd, Iran)
Mahmoud Reza
Hemami
4
(Associate Professor, Department of Natural Resources, University of Technnology, Isfehan, Iran)
Hamid Reza
Azimzadeh
5
(Associate Professor, Department of Natural Resources and Environmental, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran)
Received: 2017-04-10
Accepted : 2017-06-14
Published : 2020-08-22
Keywords:
Trace metals,
Laughing dove feather,
Yazd,
urban environment,
Abstract :
Background and Purpose: Feathers as an excellent way to monitor trace metals in the environment from the 1960s have already been used. The aim of this study is using feather of laughing dove (Streptopelia senegalensis) as an indicator of urban environmental pollution.
Materials and Methods: The concentration of Cadmium, Lead, Copper and Zinc were evaluated from 58 laughing dove's feather samples from 19 different locations within the city of Yazd. Chemical digestion and atomic absorption spectrometer was used for measuring the concentration of trace metal. Weighing method by 0.001 g accuracy digital scale were used to study the index of two wing asymmetry.
Results: Mean concentration of Lead, Cadmium, Copper and Zinc were 20.13 ± 1.27 μg g-1, 0.85± 0.04 μg g-1, 15.56 ± 0.28 μg g-1 and 209.72 ± 8.77 μg g-1. Due to heterogeneity of human activity and structure in urban environment the concentration of trace metals (lead, cadmium and zinc) showed significant differences in different local scale regions. In this study correlation was observed between Lead and Cadmium with Zinc.
Discussion and Conclusions: Correlation pattern could simply result from correlated concentrations of these metals in the environment and could be a kind of positive feedback protection against Lead and Cadmium pollution. The results showed considerable trace metals absorption by laughing dove's feather that caused by human activity and efficiency of laughing dove's feather as an indicators of trace metal pollution in urban environment.
References:
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Roux K.E, Marra P.P., 2007. The presence and impact of environmental lead in passerine birds along an urban to rural land use gradient. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 53, pp. 261–268.
Loranger, S., Demers, G., Kennedy, G., Forget, E. and Zayed, J., 1994. The Pigeons (Columba livia) as a monitor for manganese contamination from motor vehicles. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 27, pp. 311–317.
Burger, J. and Gochfeld, M., 2000. Metal levels in feathers of 12 species of seabirds from Midway Atoll in the northern Pacific Ocean. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 257, pp. 37–52.
Eeva, T., Lehikoinen, E., Ronka, M., 1998. Air pollution fades the plumage of the Great Tit. Functional. Ecology, Vol. 12, pp. 607-612.
Eeva, T., Belskii, E., Kuranov, B., 2006. Environmental pollution affects genetic diversity in wild bird populations. Mutation Research, Vol. 608, pp.8-15.
Nam, D.H., Lee, D.P., 2006. Monitoring for Pb and Cd pollution using feral pigeons in rural, urban, and industrial environments of Korea. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 357, pp. 288-295.
Evers, D. C., Savoy, L. J., DeSorbo, C. R., Yates, D. E., Hanson, W., Taylor, K. M., Siegel, L. S., Cooley Jr, J. H., Bank, M. S., Major, A., Munney, K., Mower, B. F., Vogel, H. S., Schoch, N., Pokras, M., Goodale, M. W., Fair, J., 2008. Adverse effects from environmental mercury loads on breeding common loons. Ecotoxicology, Vol. 17, pp. 69-81.
Gangoso, L., Alvarez-Lloret, P.A., Rodriguez-Navarro, A.A.B., Mateo, R., Hiraldo, F., Donazar, J.A., 2009. Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Environmental Pollution, Vol. 157, pp. 569-574.
Snoeijs, T., Dauwe, T., Pinxten, R., Vandesande, F., Eens, M., 2004. Heavy metal exposure affects the humoral immune response in a free-living small songbird, the Great Tit (Parus major). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 46, pp. 399-404.
Dauwe, T., Bervoets, L., Blust, R., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M., 2000. Can excrement and feathers of nestling songbirds be used as biomonitors for heavy metal pollution? Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 39, pp. 541–546.
Burger, J., & Gochfeld, M., 1993. Lead and cadmium accumulation in eggs and fledgling seabirds in the New York bight. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Vol. 12, pp. 261–267.
Dauwe, T., Bervoets, L., Blust, R., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M., 1999. Are eggshells and egg contents of grat and blue tit suitable as indicators of heavy metal pollution? Belgian Journal of Zoollogy, Vol. 129, pp. 439–447.
Karimi A., 2007. Determine the accumulation of heavy metals Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Zinc and Iron, in organs of the Great Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo in Anzali wetland. Journal of Environmental Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 83-92. [In Persian]
Adout, A., Hawlena, D., Maman, R., Paz-Tal, O., Karpas, Z., 2007. Determination of trace elements in pigeon and raven feathers by ICPMS. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry, Vol. 267, pp.109-116.
Nam, D. H., Lee, D. P. and Koo, T. H., 2004. Monitoring for lead pollution using feathers of Feral Pigeons (Columba livia) from Korea. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 95, pp. 13-22.
Dauwe, T., Lieven, B., Ellen, J., Rianne, P., Ronny, B., Marcel, E., 2002. Great and blue tit feathers as biomonitors for heavy metal pollution. Ecological Indicators, Vol. 1, pp.227-234.
Ekati, N., Esmaeli, S. A., Einollahi, P. F., 2016. Investigation of heavy metals (lead and cadmium) in some birds of Khuzestan. Journal of Sustainability, Development & Environment, Vol. 1, pp. 25-33. [In Persian]
Tsipoura, N., Burger, J., Feltes, R., Yacabicci, Janet., Mizrahi, D., Jeitner, C., Gochfeld, M., 2008. Metal concentrations in three species of passerine birds breeding in the Hackensack Meadowlands of New Jersey. Environmental Research, Vol. 107, pp. 218-228.
Sinkakarimi, M. H., Pourkhabaz, A., Hasanpour, M., 2015. Study of using water and waterfowl organs for evaluation of metal pollution (case study: Miankaleh and Gomishan international wetlands). Wetland Ecobiology, Vol. 7, pp. 15-28. [In Persian]
Zolfaghari, Gh., Esmaili-Sari, A. Ghasempouri, S.M., Baydokhti, R.R., Hassanzade Kiabi, H., 2009. A multispecies-monitoring study about bioaccumulation of mercury in Iranian birds (Khuzestan to Persian Gulf): Effect of taxonomic affiliation and trophic level. Environmental Research, Vol. 109, pp. 830-836.
Yousoghnia, H., 2015. Determination of heavy metals concentration in feathers of black kite (Milvus migrans) in north of Iran [master's thesis]. Behbahan: Khatam University of Technology. [In Persian]
Zarrintab, M., Mirzaei, R., Mostafaei, G., Dehghani, R., Akbari, H., 2016. Concentrations of metals in feathers of Magpie (Pica pica) from aran-o-bidgol city in central iran. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 96, pp. 465–471.
Brait, C. H. H., Antoniosi Filho, N. R., & Furtado, M. M., 2009. Utilization of wild animal hair for the environmental monitoring of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn. Quimica Nova, Vol. 32, pp. 1384–1388.
Tamrat, T., Sithole, B., Ramjugernath, D., Chunilall, V., 2017. Valorisation of chicken feathers: Characterisation of physical properties and morphological structure. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 149, pp. 349–365.
Frantz, A., Federici, P., Legoupi, J., Jacquin, L., Gasparini, J., 2016. Sex-associated differences in trace metals concentrations in and on the plumage of a common urban bird species. Ecotoxicology, Vol. 1, pp. 9-22.
Frantz, A. Pottier, M. A. Karimi, B. Corbel, H. Aubry, E. Haussy, C. Gasparini, J. Castrec-Rouelle, M., 2012. Contrasting levels of heavy metals in the feathers of urban pigeons from close habitats suggest limited movements at a restricted scale. Environmental Pollution, Vol. 168, pp. 23-28.
Brait, C.H.H., Antoniosi Filho, N.R., 2011. Use of feathers of Feral Pigeons (Columba livia) as a technique for metal quantification and environmental monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 179, pp. 457-467.
Small, M.F., Baccus, J.T., 2010. Home ranges of two populations of urban-nesting White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica) in Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 55, pp. 29-34.
Jackson, L. Basket, T. S., 1964. Perch-cooing and other aspects of breeding behavior of Mourning Doves. The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 28, p. 293-307.
Mobin, M., 2002. The final report of studies plan, the first stage of Yazd agriculture and irrigation separation of waste water treatment Lands, Yazd province department of Water and Waste water. Arid Regions Research Institute of Yazd University. [In Persian]
Taleshi, M. S. A., Nejadkoorki, F., Azimzadeh, H. R., Namayandeh, S. M., Namayandeh, M. S., Ghaneian, M. T., 2015. Health Scope, Vol. 4, pp. 1-5.
Metcheva, R., Yurukova, L., Teodorova, S., Nikolova, E., 2006. The penguin feathers as bioindicator of Antarctica environmental state. Science of Total Environment, Vol. 362, pp. 259-265.
Lens, L., van Dongen, S., Wilder, C., Brooks, T. & Matthysen, E., 1999. Fluctuating asymmetry increases with habitat disturbance in seven bird species of fragmented afrotropical forest. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Vol. 266, pp.1241–1246.
Clarke, G. M., 1998. Developmental stability and fitness: the evidence is not quite so clear. American Naturalist, Vol. 152, pp. 762–766.
Helm B, Albrecht H., 2000. Human handedness causes directional asymmetry in avian wing length measurements. Animal Behaviour, Vol. 60, pp. 899–902.
Jenkins, C., 1975. Utilisation du Pigeon biset (Columba livia GM) comme temoin de la pollution atmospherique par le plomb. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l’Academie des Sciences de Paris, Vol. 281, pp. 1187-1189.
Abdullah, M., Fasola, M., Muhammad, A., Ahmad Malik, S., Boston, N., Bokhari, H., Kamran, M. A., Shafqat, M. N., Alamdar, A., Khan, M., Ali, N., Eqani, S. A. M. A. S., 2014. Avian feathers as a non-destructive bio-monitoring tool of trace metals signatures: A case study from severely contaminated areas. Chemosphere, Vol. 119, pp. 553-561.
Janiga, M., Mankovska, B., Bobalova, M., Durkcova, G., 1990. Significance of concentrations of lead, cadmium, and iron in the plumage of the feral Pigeon. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 19, pp. 892-897.
Al-Mansour, M.I., 2004. Using feathers as a biological indicator of lead environmental pollution. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, Vol. 7, p. 1884–1887.
Azimi, S., Rocher, R., Muller, M., Moilleron, R., Thévenot, D.R., 2005. Sources, distribution and variability of hydrocarbons and metals in atmospheric deposition in an urban area (Paris, France). Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 337, pp. 223-239.
Saxena, D.K., Murthy, R.C., Singh, C., Chandra, S.V., 1989. Zinc protects testicular injury induced by concurrent exposure to cadmium and lead in rats. Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology, Vol. 64, pp. 317-329.
Said, L., Banni, M., Kerkeni, A., Said, K., Messaoudi, I., 2010. Influence of combined treatment with zinc and selenium on cadmium induced testicular pathophysiology in rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 48, pp. 2759-2765.
Hill, M.K., 2010. Understanding Environmental Pollution, third ed. Cambridge University Press.
Sayre, M. W. Basket, T. S. Sadler, K. C., 1980. Radiotelemetry studies of the Mourning Dove in Missouri. Jefferson City: Missouri Department of Conservation. Ser. 9.
Little, R.M. 1994. Marked dietary differences between sympatric feral rock doves and rock pigeons. South African Journal of Zoology, Vol. 29, pp. 33-35.
Sol, D., Senar, J.C., 1995. Urban pigeon populations: stability, home range, and the effect of removing individuals. Canadian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 73, pp. 1154-1160.
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Swaileh, K. M., & Sansur, R., 2006. Monitoring urban heavy metal pollution using the House Sparrow (Passer domesticus). Journal of Environmental Monitoring, Vol. 8, pp. 209–213.
Roux K.E, Marra P.P., 2007. The presence and impact of environmental lead in passerine birds along an urban to rural land use gradient. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 53, pp. 261–268.
Loranger, S., Demers, G., Kennedy, G., Forget, E. and Zayed, J., 1994. The Pigeons (Columba livia) as a monitor for manganese contamination from motor vehicles. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 27, pp. 311–317.
Burger, J. and Gochfeld, M., 2000. Metal levels in feathers of 12 species of seabirds from Midway Atoll in the northern Pacific Ocean. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 257, pp. 37–52.
Eeva, T., Lehikoinen, E., Ronka, M., 1998. Air pollution fades the plumage of the Great Tit. Functional. Ecology, Vol. 12, pp. 607-612.
Eeva, T., Belskii, E., Kuranov, B., 2006. Environmental pollution affects genetic diversity in wild bird populations. Mutation Research, Vol. 608, pp.8-15.
Nam, D.H., Lee, D.P., 2006. Monitoring for Pb and Cd pollution using feral pigeons in rural, urban, and industrial environments of Korea. Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 357, pp. 288-295.
Evers, D. C., Savoy, L. J., DeSorbo, C. R., Yates, D. E., Hanson, W., Taylor, K. M., Siegel, L. S., Cooley Jr, J. H., Bank, M. S., Major, A., Munney, K., Mower, B. F., Vogel, H. S., Schoch, N., Pokras, M., Goodale, M. W., Fair, J., 2008. Adverse effects from environmental mercury loads on breeding common loons. Ecotoxicology, Vol. 17, pp. 69-81.
Gangoso, L., Alvarez-Lloret, P.A., Rodriguez-Navarro, A.A.B., Mateo, R., Hiraldo, F., Donazar, J.A., 2009. Long-term effects of lead poisoning on bone mineralization in vultures exposed to ammunition sources. Environmental Pollution, Vol. 157, pp. 569-574.
Snoeijs, T., Dauwe, T., Pinxten, R., Vandesande, F., Eens, M., 2004. Heavy metal exposure affects the humoral immune response in a free-living small songbird, the Great Tit (Parus major). Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 46, pp. 399-404.
Dauwe, T., Bervoets, L., Blust, R., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M., 2000. Can excrement and feathers of nestling songbirds be used as biomonitors for heavy metal pollution? Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 39, pp. 541–546.
Burger, J., & Gochfeld, M., 1993. Lead and cadmium accumulation in eggs and fledgling seabirds in the New York bight. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Vol. 12, pp. 261–267.
Dauwe, T., Bervoets, L., Blust, R., Pinxten, R., & Eens, M., 1999. Are eggshells and egg contents of grat and blue tit suitable as indicators of heavy metal pollution? Belgian Journal of Zoollogy, Vol. 129, pp. 439–447.
Karimi A., 2007. Determine the accumulation of heavy metals Cadmium, Chromium, Copper, Zinc and Iron, in organs of the Great Cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo in Anzali wetland. Journal of Environmental Studies, Vol. 33, pp. 83-92. [In Persian]
Adout, A., Hawlena, D., Maman, R., Paz-Tal, O., Karpas, Z., 2007. Determination of trace elements in pigeon and raven feathers by ICPMS. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry, Vol. 267, pp.109-116.
Nam, D. H., Lee, D. P. and Koo, T. H., 2004. Monitoring for lead pollution using feathers of Feral Pigeons (Columba livia) from Korea. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 95, pp. 13-22.
Dauwe, T., Lieven, B., Ellen, J., Rianne, P., Ronny, B., Marcel, E., 2002. Great and blue tit feathers as biomonitors for heavy metal pollution. Ecological Indicators, Vol. 1, pp.227-234.
Ekati, N., Esmaeli, S. A., Einollahi, P. F., 2016. Investigation of heavy metals (lead and cadmium) in some birds of Khuzestan. Journal of Sustainability, Development & Environment, Vol. 1, pp. 25-33. [In Persian]
Tsipoura, N., Burger, J., Feltes, R., Yacabicci, Janet., Mizrahi, D., Jeitner, C., Gochfeld, M., 2008. Metal concentrations in three species of passerine birds breeding in the Hackensack Meadowlands of New Jersey. Environmental Research, Vol. 107, pp. 218-228.
Sinkakarimi, M. H., Pourkhabaz, A., Hasanpour, M., 2015. Study of using water and waterfowl organs for evaluation of metal pollution (case study: Miankaleh and Gomishan international wetlands). Wetland Ecobiology, Vol. 7, pp. 15-28. [In Persian]
Zolfaghari, Gh., Esmaili-Sari, A. Ghasempouri, S.M., Baydokhti, R.R., Hassanzade Kiabi, H., 2009. A multispecies-monitoring study about bioaccumulation of mercury in Iranian birds (Khuzestan to Persian Gulf): Effect of taxonomic affiliation and trophic level. Environmental Research, Vol. 109, pp. 830-836.
Yousoghnia, H., 2015. Determination of heavy metals concentration in feathers of black kite (Milvus migrans) in north of Iran [master's thesis]. Behbahan: Khatam University of Technology. [In Persian]
Zarrintab, M., Mirzaei, R., Mostafaei, G., Dehghani, R., Akbari, H., 2016. Concentrations of metals in feathers of Magpie (Pica pica) from aran-o-bidgol city in central iran. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol. 96, pp. 465–471.
Brait, C. H. H., Antoniosi Filho, N. R., & Furtado, M. M., 2009. Utilization of wild animal hair for the environmental monitoring of Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn. Quimica Nova, Vol. 32, pp. 1384–1388.
Tamrat, T., Sithole, B., Ramjugernath, D., Chunilall, V., 2017. Valorisation of chicken feathers: Characterisation of physical properties and morphological structure. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 149, pp. 349–365.
Frantz, A., Federici, P., Legoupi, J., Jacquin, L., Gasparini, J., 2016. Sex-associated differences in trace metals concentrations in and on the plumage of a common urban bird species. Ecotoxicology, Vol. 1, pp. 9-22.
Frantz, A. Pottier, M. A. Karimi, B. Corbel, H. Aubry, E. Haussy, C. Gasparini, J. Castrec-Rouelle, M., 2012. Contrasting levels of heavy metals in the feathers of urban pigeons from close habitats suggest limited movements at a restricted scale. Environmental Pollution, Vol. 168, pp. 23-28.
Brait, C.H.H., Antoniosi Filho, N.R., 2011. Use of feathers of Feral Pigeons (Columba livia) as a technique for metal quantification and environmental monitoring. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, Vol. 179, pp. 457-467.
Small, M.F., Baccus, J.T., 2010. Home ranges of two populations of urban-nesting White-winged Doves (Zenaida asiatica) in Texas. The Southwestern Naturalist, Vol. 55, pp. 29-34.
Jackson, L. Basket, T. S., 1964. Perch-cooing and other aspects of breeding behavior of Mourning Doves. The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 28, p. 293-307.
Mobin, M., 2002. The final report of studies plan, the first stage of Yazd agriculture and irrigation separation of waste water treatment Lands, Yazd province department of Water and Waste water. Arid Regions Research Institute of Yazd University. [In Persian]
Taleshi, M. S. A., Nejadkoorki, F., Azimzadeh, H. R., Namayandeh, S. M., Namayandeh, M. S., Ghaneian, M. T., 2015. Health Scope, Vol. 4, pp. 1-5.
Metcheva, R., Yurukova, L., Teodorova, S., Nikolova, E., 2006. The penguin feathers as bioindicator of Antarctica environmental state. Science of Total Environment, Vol. 362, pp. 259-265.
Lens, L., van Dongen, S., Wilder, C., Brooks, T. & Matthysen, E., 1999. Fluctuating asymmetry increases with habitat disturbance in seven bird species of fragmented afrotropical forest. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Vol. 266, pp.1241–1246.
Clarke, G. M., 1998. Developmental stability and fitness: the evidence is not quite so clear. American Naturalist, Vol. 152, pp. 762–766.
Helm B, Albrecht H., 2000. Human handedness causes directional asymmetry in avian wing length measurements. Animal Behaviour, Vol. 60, pp. 899–902.
Jenkins, C., 1975. Utilisation du Pigeon biset (Columba livia GM) comme temoin de la pollution atmospherique par le plomb. Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des seances de l’Academie des Sciences de Paris, Vol. 281, pp. 1187-1189.
Abdullah, M., Fasola, M., Muhammad, A., Ahmad Malik, S., Boston, N., Bokhari, H., Kamran, M. A., Shafqat, M. N., Alamdar, A., Khan, M., Ali, N., Eqani, S. A. M. A. S., 2014. Avian feathers as a non-destructive bio-monitoring tool of trace metals signatures: A case study from severely contaminated areas. Chemosphere, Vol. 119, pp. 553-561.
Janiga, M., Mankovska, B., Bobalova, M., Durkcova, G., 1990. Significance of concentrations of lead, cadmium, and iron in the plumage of the feral Pigeon. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, Vol. 19, pp. 892-897.
Al-Mansour, M.I., 2004. Using feathers as a biological indicator of lead environmental pollution. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, Vol. 7, p. 1884–1887.
Azimi, S., Rocher, R., Muller, M., Moilleron, R., Thévenot, D.R., 2005. Sources, distribution and variability of hydrocarbons and metals in atmospheric deposition in an urban area (Paris, France). Science of the Total Environment, Vol. 337, pp. 223-239.
Saxena, D.K., Murthy, R.C., Singh, C., Chandra, S.V., 1989. Zinc protects testicular injury induced by concurrent exposure to cadmium and lead in rats. Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology, Vol. 64, pp. 317-329.
Said, L., Banni, M., Kerkeni, A., Said, K., Messaoudi, I., 2010. Influence of combined treatment with zinc and selenium on cadmium induced testicular pathophysiology in rat. Food and Chemical Toxicology, Vol. 48, pp. 2759-2765.
Hill, M.K., 2010. Understanding Environmental Pollution, third ed. Cambridge University Press.
Sayre, M. W. Basket, T. S. Sadler, K. C., 1980. Radiotelemetry studies of the Mourning Dove in Missouri. Jefferson City: Missouri Department of Conservation. Ser. 9.
Little, R.M. 1994. Marked dietary differences between sympatric feral rock doves and rock pigeons. South African Journal of Zoology, Vol. 29, pp. 33-35.
Sol, D., Senar, J.C., 1995. Urban pigeon populations: stability, home range, and the effect of removing individuals. Canadian Journal of Zoology, Vol. 73, pp. 1154-1160.
