Synthesis of Resin-based Composites Containing Cellulose Nanocrystal and Nano-amorphous Calcium Phosphate for Orthodontic Adhesive Uses
Subject Areas : Journal of Nanoanalysis
Nasrin Shahmiri
1
,
Nahid Hassanzadeh Nemati
2
*
,
Ahmad Ramazani Saadatabadi
3
,
Massoud Seifi
4
1 - Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2 - Department of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
3 - Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
4 - Department of Orthodontics, Dental School, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
Keywords: composite resin, orthodontic bonding, white spot lesion, cellulose nanocrystal, amorphous calcium phosphate,
Abstract :
White spot lesions (WSLs) commonly develop around orthodontic brackets. Amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) is known for its remineralizing properties, which can help prevent WSLs. However, the incorporation of ACP may compromise the mechanical strength of the material. This study focuses on the development of experimental orthodontic adhesives incorporating cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP) to evaluate their bond strength and mineral release properties. The experimental resin formulation included BisEMA, TEGDMA, 4-META, camphorquinone, and DMAEM. Adhesive disks underwent characterization through FESEM, EDS, and XRD techniques. The release of minerals was quantified using ICP-OES. The shear bond strength (SBS) was evaluated immediately after bonding metal brackets to bovine incisors. Adhesives containing various fractions of ACP (15%, 20%, and 40%) exhibited sustained release of calcium and phosphorus over a 30-day period. The incorporation of ACP and CNC contributed to a reduction in adhesive cytotoxicity. The adhesive formulation with 40% ACP + 5% CNC showed the lowest SBS, whereas the adhesive with 15% ACP + 5% CNC demonstrated suitable bond strength for orthodontic applications. Addition of 20% CNC to the experimental resin positively impacted bracket bond strength. Likewise, 20% ACP improved shear bond strength. However, the combination of 5% CNC with ACP did not significantly affect bond strength. ACP nanoparticles show promise for integration into experimental orthodontic adhesives containing BisEMA, TEGDMA, 4-META, CQ, and DMAEM. The synergistic use of ACP with CNC remains a topic of debate and warrants further investigation.
1. Pandya M and Diekwisch T. Enamel biomimetics—fiction or future of dentistry. Int J Oral Sci 2019; 11:8.
2. Bishara S and Ostby A. White Spot Lesions: Formation, Prevention, and Treatment. Semin Orthod 2008; 14:174-182.
3. Twomley J, Yu Q, Ballard R, Armbruster P and Xu X. Formulation and characterization of antibacterial orthodontic adhesive. Dental Press J Orthod 2019; 24:73-9.
4. Walsh LJ and Healey DL. Prevention and caries risk management in teenage and orthodontic patients. Aust Dent J 2019; 64:S37-S45.
5. Nam HJ, Kim YM, Kwon YH, Kim IR, Park BS, Son WS, Lee SM and Kim YI. Enamel Surface Remineralization Effect by Fluorinated Graphite and Bioactive Glass-Containing Orthodontic Bonding Resin. Materials 2019; 12:1308.
6. Al-eesa NA, Wong FSL, Johal A and Hill RG. Flouride containing bioactive glass composite for orthodontic adhesives - ion release properties. Dent Mater 2017; 33:1324-29.
7. Zhang L, Weir MD, Chow LC, Reynolds MA and Xu HHK. Rechargeable calcium phosphate orthodontic cement with sustained ion release and re-release. Sci Rep 2016; 6:36476.
8. Xie X, Wang L, Xing D, Qi M, Li X, Sun J, Melo MAS, Weir MD, Oates TW, Bai Y and Xu HHK. Novel rechargeable calcium phosphate nanoparticle-filled dental cement. Dent Mater J 2019; 38:1-10.
9. Haghani N, Hassanzadeh Nemati N, Khorasani MT and Bonakdar S. Fabrication of polycaprolactone/heparinized nano fluorohydroxyapatite scaffold for bone tissue engineering uses. Int J Polym Mater Polym Biomater 2023.
10. Hassanzadeh Nemati N and Mirhadi SM. Study on polycaprolactone coated hierarchical meso/macroporous Titania scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Int J Eng 2022; 35:1887-1894.
11. Lee JH, Kim HW and Seo SJ. Polymer-Ceramic Bionanocomposites for Dental Application. J Nanomater 2016; 2016:3795976.
12. Greenberg AR and Kamel I. Polymer-ceramic composite for tooth-root implant. J Biomed Mater Res 1976; 10:777-788.
13. Xie C, Zhang JF and Li S. Polymer Infiltrated Ceramic Hybrid Composites as Dental Materials. Oral Health Dent Stud 2018; 1:2.
14. Dunn WJ. Shear bond strength of an amorphous calcium-phosphate–containing orthodontic resin cement. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2007; 131:243-7.
15. Wang WN and Meng CL. A study of bond strength between light-and self-cured orthodontic resin. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 1992; 101:350-4.
16. Rahnejat B, Hassanzadeh Nemati N, Sadrnezhaad SK and Shokrgozar MA. Promoting osteoblast proliferation and differentiation on functionalized and laser treated titanium substrate using hydroxyapatite/β-tricalcium phosphate/silver nanoparticles. Mater Chem Phys 2023; 293:126885.
17. Bienek DR, Giuseppetti AA and Skrtic D. Amorphous Calcium Phosphate as Bioactive Filler in Polymeric Dental Composites, in Calcium Phosphates - From Fundamentals to Applications. IntechOpen 2019.
18. Melo MAS, Weir MD, Rodrigues LKA and Xu HHK. Novel calcium phosphate nanocomposite with caries-inhibition in a human in situ model. Dent Mater 2013; 29:231-240.
19. Xu HHK, Moreau JL, Sun L and Chow LC. Nanocomposite containing amorphous calcium phosphate nanoparticles for caries inhibition. Dent Mater 2011; 27:762-9.
20. Chen C, Weir MD, Cheng L, Lin N, Lin-Gibson S, Chow LC, Zhou X and Xu HHK. Antibacterial activity and ion release of bonding agent containing amorphous calcium phosphate nanoparticles. Dent Mater 2014; 30:891-901.
21. Par M, Tarle Z, Hickel R and Ilie N. Real-time curing characteristics of experimental resin composites containing amorphous calcium phosphate. Eur J Oral Sci 2018; 126:426-432.
22. Durner J, Walther UI, Zaspel J, Hickel R and Reich FX. Metabolism of TEGDMA and HEMA in human cells. Biomaterials 2010; 31:818-823.
23. Yin M, Liu F and He J. Preparation and characterization of Bis-GMA free dental resin system with synthesized dimethacrylate monomer TDDMMA derived from tricyclo[5.2.1.0(2,6)]-decanedimethanol. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2016; 57:157-163.
24. Pratap B, Gupta RK, Bhardwaj B and Nag M. Resin based restorative dental materials: characteristics and future perspectives. Jpn Dent Sci Rev 2019; 55:126-138.
25. Xie XJ, Xing D, Wang L, Zhou H, Weir MD, Bai YX and Xu HH. Novel rechargeable calcium phosphate nanoparticle containing orthodontic cement. Int J Oral Sci 2017; 9:24-32.
26. Foster JA, Berzins DW and Bradley TG. Bond strength of an amorphous calcium phosphate- containing orthodontic adhesive. Angle Orthod 2008; 78:339-344.
27. Zhao J, Liu Y, Sun WB and Zhang H. Amorphous calcium phosphate and its application in dentistry. Chem Cent J 2011; 5:40.
28. Schumacher GE, Antonucci JM, O’Donnell JN and Skrtic D. The use of amorphous calcium phosphate composites as bioactive basing materials: their effect on the strength of the composite/adhesive/dentin bond. J Am Dent Assoc 2007; 138:1476-1484.
29. Yang Y, Chen Z, Zhang J, Wang G, Zhang R and Suo D. Preparation and Applications of the Cellulose Nanocrystal. Int J Polym Sci 2019; 2019:1767028.
30. Sturcova A, Davies GR and Eichhorn SJ. The elastic modulus and stress-transfer properties of tunicate cellulose whiskers. Biomacromolecules 2005; 6:1055-1061.
31. Lahiji RR, Reifenberger R, Raman A, Rudie A and Moon RJ. Characterization of Cellulose Nanocrystal Surfaces by SPM. NSTI-Nanotech 2008; 2:704-7.
32. Wang Y, Hua H, Li W, Wang R, Jiang X and Zhu M. Strong antibacterial dental resin composites containing cellulose nanocrystal/zinc oxide nanohybrids. J Dent 2019; 80:23-9.
33. Leite A, Viotto H, Nunes T, Pasquini D and Pero A. Cellulose nanocrystals into Poly(ethylmethacrylate) used for dental application. Polímeros 2022; 32:e2022006.
34. Salama A. Cellulose/calcium phosphate hybrids: New materials for biomedical and environmental applications. Int J Biol.Macromol 2019; 127:606-617.
35. Luminiţa Cosma L, Şuhani RD, Mesaroş A and Eugenia Badea M. Current treatment modalities of orthodontically induced white spot lesions and their outcome – a literature review. Med Pharm Rep 2019; 92:25-30.
36. Shahmiri N, Hassanzadeh Nemati N, Ramazani Saadatabadi A and Seifi M. Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) Synthesis: An AFM Study. J Nanostruct 2021; 11:684-697.
37. Shahmiri N, Hassanzadeh Nemati N, Ramazani Saadatabadi A and Seifi M. The effect of acid/cellulose ratio on the quality of Cellulose Nanocrystal (CNC) suspension. J Nanoanalysis 2022.
38. Al-eesa NA, Johal A, Hill RG and Wong FSL. Flouride containing bioactive glass composite for orthodontic adhesives__ Apatite formation properties. Dent Mater 2018; 34:1127-1133.
39. Xu HHK, Weir MD, Sun L, Takagi S and Chow LC. Effects of Calcium Phosphate Nanoparticles on Ca-PO4 Composite. J Dent Res 2007; 86:378-383.
40. Chanachai S, Chaichana W, Insee K, Benjakul S, Aupaphong V and Panpisut P. Physical/Mechanical and Antibacterial Properties of Orthodontic Adhesives Containing Calcium Phosphate and Nisin. J Funct Biomater 2021; 12:73.
41. Pires-de-Souza FCP, Moraes PC, Garcia LFR, Aguilar FG and Watanabe E. Evaluation of pH, calcium ion release and antimicrobial activity of a new calcium aluminate cement. Braz Oral Res 2013; 27:324-330.
42. Ghazvini SA, Tabrizi MA, Kobarfard F, Baghban AA and Asgary S. Ion release and pH of a new endodontic cement, MTA and Portland cement. Int Endod J 2009; 4:74-8.
43. Galal M, Zaki DY, Rabie MI, El-Shereif SM and Hamdy TM. Solubility, pH change, and calcium ion release of low solubility endodontic mineral trioxide aggregate. Bull Natl Res Cent 2020; 44:42.
44. Pourhajibagher M, Ghorbanzadeh R, Salehi-Vaziri A and Bahador A. In Vitro Assessments of Antimicrobial Potential and Cytotoxicity Activity of an Orthodontic Adhesive Doped with Nano-Graphene Oxide. Folia Med 2022; 64:110-116.
45. Bationo R, Rouamba A, Diarra A, Beugré-Kouassi MLK, Beugré JB and Jordana F. Cytotoxicity evaluation of dental and orthodontic light-cured composite resins. Clin Exp Dent 2021; 7:40-48.
46. Beltrami R, Colombo M, Rizzo K, Cristofaro AD, Poggio C and Pietrocola G. Cytotoxicity of Different Composite Resins on Human Gingival Fibroblast Cell Lines. Biomimetics 2021; 6:26.
47. Lee SM, Yoo KH, Yoon SY, Kim IR, Park BS, Son WS, Ko CC, Son SA and Kim YI. Enamel Anti-Demineralization Effect of Orthodontic Adhesive Containing Bioactive Glass and Graphene Oxide: An In-Vitro Study. Materials(Basel) 2018; 11:1728.
48. Cao T, Saw TY, Heng BC, Liu H, Yap AUJ and Ng ML. Comparison of different test models for the assessment of cytotoxicity of composite resins. J Appl Toxicol 2005; 25:101-108.
49. Vande Vannet B, Mohebbian N and Wehrbein H. Toxicity of used orthodontic archwires assessed by three-dimensional cell culture. Eur J Orthod 2006; 28:426-432.
50. Goldberg M. In vitro and in vivo studies on the toxicity of dental resin components: A review. Clin Oral Investig 2008; 12:1-8.
51. Geurtsen W, Lehmann F, Spahl W and Leyhausen G. Cytotoxicity of 35 dental resin composite monomers/additives in permanent 3T3 and three human primary fibroblast cultures. J Biomed Mater Res 1998; 41:474-480.
52. Al-Hiyasat AS, Darmani H and Milhem MM. Cytotoxicity evaluation of dental resin composites and their flowable derivatives. Clin Oral Investig 2005; 9:21-5.
53. Blanchard AB, Mon HH, Wang Y, Chapple A, Dupree P, Ballard R and et al. Formulation and characterization of experimental orthodontic adhesive containing antibacterial dimethacrylate DABCO monomers: An in vitro study. Int orthod 2022; 20:100706.
54. Tavares SW, Consani S, Nouer DF, Magnani MB, Nouer PR and Martins LM. Shear bond strength of new and recycled brackets to enamel. Braz Dent J 2006; 17:44-8.
55. Schaneveldt S and Foley TF. Bond strength comparison of moisture-insensitive primers. Am J Orthod Dentofac Orthop 2002; 122:267-273.
56. Tessore E, Mazzotta L and Fortini A. Evaluation of shear bond strength and adhesive remnant index of orthodontic brackets bonded directly or indirectly with adhesive resin cements to bovine enamel. J Dent Health Oral Disord Ther 2017; 8:521-6.
57. Li A, Cui Y, Gao S, Li Q, Xu L, Meng X, Dong Y, Liu X and Qiu D. Biomineralizing Dental Resin Empowered by Bioactive Amphiphilic Composite Nanoparticles. ACS Appl Bio Mater 2019; 2:1660-66.
58. Trilokesh C and Uppuluri KB. Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from jackfruit peel. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16709.
59. Abiaziem CV, Williams AB, Inegbenebor AI, Onwordi CT, Ehi-Eromosele CO and Petrik LF. Isolation and characterisation of cellulose nanocrystal obtained from sugercane peel. Rasayan J Chem 2020; 13:177-187.
60. Vecbiskena L, Gross A, Riekstina U and Yang TCK. Crystallized nano-sized alpha-tricalcium phosphate from amorphous calcium phosphate: microstructure, cementation and cell response. Biomed Mater 2015; 10:025009.
61. Ramalingam M, Young MF, Thomas V, Sun L, Chow LC, Tison CK, Chatterjee K, Miles WC and Jr CGS. Nanofiber scaffold gradients for interfacial tissue engineering. J Biomater Appl 2012; 27:695-705.
62. Zhao J, Liu Y, Sun WB and Yang X. First detection, characterization, and application of amorphous calcium phosphate in dentistry. J Dent Sci 2012; 7:316-323.
63. Esposti LD, Markovic S, Ignjatovic N, Panseri S, Montesi M, Adamiano A, Fosca M, Rau JV, Uskokovic V and Iafisco M. Thermal crystallization of amorphous calcium phosphate combined with citrate and fluoride doping: a novel route to produce hydroxyapatite bioceramics. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:4832–4845.
64. Dorozhkin SV. Amorphous calcium (ortho)phosphates. Acta Biomater 2010; 6:4457-4475.
65. Boskey AL and Posner AS. Conversion of amorphous calcium phosphate to microcrystalline hydroxyapatite. A pH-dependent, solution-mediated, solid-solid conversion. J Phys Chem 1973; 77:2313–17.
66. Skrtic D, Antonucci JM and Eanes ED. Improved properties of amorphous calcium phosphate fillers in remineralizing resin composites. Dent Mater 1996; 12:295-301.
67. O’Donnell JNR, Antonucci JM and Skrtic D. Illuminating the role of agglomerates on critical physicochemical properties of amorphous calcium phosphate composites. J Compos Mater 2008; 42:2231-2246.
68. Skrtic D, Antonucci JM and Eanes ED. Amorphous Calcium Phosphate-Based Bioactive Polymeric Composites for Mineralized Tissue Regeneration. J Res Natl Inst Stand Technol 2003; 108:167-182.
69. Yan J, Yang H, Luo T, Hua F and He H. Application of Amorphous Calcium Phosphate Agents in the Prevention and Treatment of Enamel Demineralization. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:853436.
70. Skrtic D and Antonucci JM. Dental composites based on amorphous calcium phosphate-resin composition/physicochemical properties study. J Biomater Appl 2007; 21:375-393.
71. Moszner N and Salz U. New developments of polymeric dental composites. Prog Polym Sci 2001; 26:535-576.
72. Sankarapandian M, Shobha H, Kalachandra S, Mcgrath J and Taylor D. Characterization of some aromatic dimethacrylates for dental composite applications. J Mater Sci Mater Med 1997; 8:465-8.
73. Stansbury JW. Curing dental resins and composites by photopolymerization. J Esthet Restor Dent 2000; 12:300-308.
74. Yoshida K and Greener E. Effects of two amine reducing agents on the degree of conversion and physical properties of an unfilled light-cured resin. Dent Mater 1993; 9:246-251.
75. Yoshida K and Greener E. Effect of photoinitiator on degree of conversion of unfilled light-cured resin. J dent 1994; 22:296-9.
76. Chang JC, Hurst TL, Hart DA and Estey AW. 4-META use in dentistry: a literature review. J Prosthet Dent 2002; 87:216-224.
77. Leung Y and Morris MD. Characterization of the chemical interactions between 4-MET and enamel by Raman spectroscopy. Dent Mater 1995; 11:191-5.
78. Menezes-Silva R, Pereira FV, Santos MH, Soares JA, Soares SMCS and Miranda JLD. Biocompatibility of a New Dental Glass Ionomer Cement with Cellulose Microfibers and Cellulose Nanocrystals. Braz Dent J 2017; 28:172-8.
79. Haydar B, Sarikaya S and Cehreli ZC. Comparison of shear bond strength of three bonding agents with metal and ceramic brackets. Angle Orthod 1999; 69:457-462.
80. Skrtic D, Antonucci JM, Eanes ED and Eidelman N. Dental composites based on hybrid and surface-modified amorphous calcium phosphates. Biomaterials 2004; 25:1141-50.
81. Sabir M, Muhammad N, Siddiqui U, Khan AS, Syed MR, Rahim A, Liaqat S, Shah A. T, Sharif F, Khan MA and Din IU. Effect of nanocrystalline cellulose/silica-based fillers on mechanical properties of experimental dental adhesive. Polym Bull 2022; 80.
82. Moradian M, Jafarpour D, Saadat M and Tahmasebi F. The effect of bacterial cellulose nanocrystals on the shear bond strength of resin modified glass ionomer cement to dentin. J Clin Exp Dent 2021; 13:e784-8.
83. Antonucci JM, Giuseppetti AA, O’Donnell JNR, Schumacher GE and Skrtic D. Polymerization stress development in dental composites: Effect of cavity design factor. Materials 2009; 2:169-180.
84. Chaudhari PK, Goyal L, Rana SS, Dhingra K and Kshetrimayum N. Nanocomposites and nanoionomers for orthodontic bracket bonding. Applications of Nanocomposite Materials in Dentistry, Elsevier. 2019.
85. Henkin FDS, Macêdo EDODD, Santos KDS, Schwarzbach M, Samuel SMW and Mundstock KS. In vitro analysis of shear bond strength and adhesive remnant index of different metal brackets. Dental Press J Orthod 2016; 21:67-73.
86. Leão Filho JCB, Braz AKS, Araujo RE, Tanaka OM and Pithon MM. Enamel quality after debonding: evaluation by optical coherence tomography. Braz Dent J 2015; 26:384-9.
87. Faria-Júnior ÉM, Guiraldo RD, Berger SB, Correr AB, Correr-Sobrinho L, Contreras EFR and Lopes MB. In-vivo evaluation of the surface roughness and morphology of enamel after bracket removal and polishing by different techniques. Am J Orthod Dentofacial Orthop 2015; 147:324-9.
88. Santos LK, Rocha RH, Pereira Barroso AC, Otoni RP, Carvalho de Oliveira Santos C and Fonseca-Silva T. Comparative analysis of adhesive remnant index of orthodontic adhesive systems. South Eur J Orthod Dentofac Res 2021; 8:26-30.
89. Sharma S, Tandon P, Nagar A, Singh GP, Singh A and Chugh VK. A comparison of shear bond strength of orthodontic brackets bonded with four different orthodontic adhesives. J Orthod Sci 2014; 3:29-33.