• الصفحة الرئيسية
  • Linking urban marginality and socio-ecological systems to Highlight Research Areas in informal settlements upgrading: A literature review and future directions

شارک

عنوان URL للمقالة


رقم المقالة : SOIJ-2105-1418 (R3) زيارة : 266 الصفحة: 1 - 14

10.22094/soij.2021.1930135.1418

نوع المخطوط: ابحاث

Linking urban marginality and socio-ecological systems to Highlight Research Areas in informal settlements upgrading: A literature review and future directions

الموضوعات : Space Ontology International Journal

Sina Razzaghi-Asl 1

1 - Department of Urban Design, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran

تاريخ الإرسال : 27 الأحد , رمضان, 1442 تاريخ التأكيد : 18 الثلاثاء , ربيع الثاني, 1443 تاريخ الإصدار : 28 الثلاثاء , رجب, 1443

الکلمات المفتاحية: Climate Change, Informal settlements, Urban metabolism, ecosystems services, socio-ecological system,

ملخص المقالة :

Slums are basically recognized as a multi-causality phenomenon which is rapidly growing worldwide. While the contribution of social and ecological factors is separately well understood, the interplay of interconnected socio-ecological systems in slums, such as urban heat islands, is insufficiently addressed in research. This study identifies the most important socio-ecological research areas applicable in analyzing slum settlements by using a narrative literature review method. This type of review was applied to clarify an overview of knowledge regarding the linkage between socio-ecological perspectives and informal settlements. Further, it advances the definition and the reasons behind slum shaping. The results of this study show that there are particularly three main research areas including urban sustainability and metabolism, climate change, and ecosystem services for slum analysis in the literature. Exploring the gaps through a slum socio-ecological research framework paves the way for studying further research. We also highlighted the need for analyzing energy efficiency and flows, application of renewable energies, drought dynamics, biodiversity services, and urban heat islands more than other possible subjects for future directions in slum socio-ecological research.

المصادر:


  1. Abunyewah, M., Gajendran, T. & Maund, K. (2018). Profiling Informal Settlements for Disaster Risks. Procedia Engineering, 212: 238-245.
    2.
  2.  Adegun, O. (2016). Developing Green Infrastructure in a Johannesburg Informal Settlement: Investigating residents’ willingness to pay. Urban Transition Conference, Shanghai.
    3.
  3.  Adegun, O. B. (2017). Green infrastructure in relation to informal urban settlements. Journal of Architecture and Urbanism 41(1): 22-33.
    4.
  4. Adelekan, I. O. (2012). Vulnerability to wind hazards in the traditional city of Ibadan, Nigeria, Environment and Urbanization 24(2): 597–617. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247812454247
    5.
  5. Adelekan, I., (2010). Vulnerability of poor urban coastal communities to flooding in Lagos, Nigeria. Environ. Urban. 22 (2), 433–450.
    6.
  6. Agrawal, A. (2010). Local institutions and adaptation to climate change. In R. Mearns, & A. Norton (Eds.). Social dimensions of climate change: Equity and vulnerability in a warming world (pp. 173–197). Washington DC USA: The World Bank.
    7.
  7. Ajibade I, McBean G. (2014). Climate extremes and housing rights: A political ecology of impacts, early warning and adaptation constraints in Lagos slum communities. Geoforum 8;55(0):76-86.
    8.
  8.  Ajibade, I. & McBean, G. (2014). Climate extremes and housing rights: A political ecology of impacts, early warning and adaptation constraints in Lagos slum communities. Geoforum 55: 76-86.
    9.
  9.  Alcayna-Stevens, T., (2015). Slum Socio-ecology: An Exploratory Characterization of Vulnerability to Climate-change Related Disasters in the Urban Context (M.Sc.). Harvard Humanitarian Initiative, Universidad de Oviedo.
    10.
  10. Amado, P., Ramalhete, M.,  Amado, I., R., Freitas, J., (2016). Regeneration of informal areas: An integrated approach. Cities 58: 59-69.
    11.
  11. Atkinson, R. (2000). Combating Social Exclusion in Europe: The New Urban Policy Challenge. Urban Studies, 37(5-6), 1037-1055. Cameron, S. J. (2016). Urban inequality, social exclusion and schooling in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 47(4), 580-597.
    12.
  12. Attia, S., Khalil, H.A., (2015). Urban metabolism and quality of life in informal areas. In: Schrenk, M., Popovich, V.V., Zeile, P., Elisei, P., Beyer, C. (Eds.), Proceedings REAL CORP 2015: Plan Together – Right Now – Overall. Ghent, Belgium, pp. 661–674. Retrieved from. http://www.corp.at.
    13.
  13.  Baker, I, Peterson, A., Brown, G. & McAlpine, C. (2012). “Local government response to the impacts of climate change: an evaluation of local climate adaptation plans”, Landscape and Urban Planning Vol 107, No 2, pages 127–136.
    14.
  14. Bouchard, B., Goncalo, A., Susienka, M. Wilson, K. Weininger, S., Jiusto, S.,  Wood, B. & Kenny, M. (2007). Improving Flood Risk Management in Informal Settlements of Cape Town, Doctoral dissertation Worcester Polytechnic Institute, (WPI).
    15.
  15. Butera, F.M., Caputo, P., Adhikari, R.S. & Mele, R. (2019). Energy access in informal settlements. Results of a wide on-site survey in Rio De Janeiro. Energy Policy 134, 110943.
    16.
  16. Callo-Concha, D., Henning Sommer, J., Kleemann, J., W. Gatzweiler, F., and Denich, M., (2014). Marginality from a Socio-ecological Perspective In: Marginality: Addressing the nexus of poverty. (Ed: Von Braun and J., Gatzweiler, F.W.). 
    17.
  17. Chakraborty, A., Wilson, B., Sarraf, S. & Jana, A. (2015). Open data for informal settlements: Toward a user's guide for urban managers and planners. Journal of Urban Management 4: 74-91.
    18.
  18. Chatterjee, M. (2010). Slum dwellers response to flooding events in the megacities of India. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 15(4), 337–353
    19.
  19. Christoplos, I., Anderson, S., Arnold, M., Galaz, V., Hedger, M., Klein, R. J. T., et al. (2009). The human dimension of climate adaptation: The importance of local and institutional issues. Stockholm, Sweden: Commission on Climate Change and Development.
    20.
  20.  Cilliers, S., Cilliers, J., Lubbe, R., & Siebert, S. (2013). Ecosystem services of urban green spaces in African countries – Perspectives and challenges. Urban Ecosystems, 16(4), 681–702.
    21.
  21. Darkwah, R.M., Gobbinah, P.B. and Anokye, P.A. (2018). Contextualising urban resilience in Ghana: Local perspectives and experiences. Geoforum 94: 12-23.
    22.
  22. Degert, I., Parikh, P. & Kabir. R.(2016). Sustainability assessment of a slum upgrading intervention in Bangladesh, Cities 56: 63–73. 
    23.
  23. Demaria, F. & Schindler, S. (2016). Contesting urban metabolism: Struggles over waste-to-energy in Delhi, India. Antipode, 48: 293-313.
    24.
  24. Diep, L., Dodman, D. & Parikh, P. (2019). Green Infrastructure in Informal Settlements through a Multiple- Level Perspective. Water Alternatives 12(2): 554-570.
    25.
  25. Dobson, S. (2017). Community-driven pathways for implementation of global urban resilience goals in Africa. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2017.09.028).
    26.
  26. Dodman, D., Kibona, E., & Kiluma, L. (2011). Tomorrow is too late: responding to social and climate vulnerability in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Case study prepared for Cities and Climate Change: Global Report on Human Settlements 2011) [Retrieved October 20, 2017 from – http://mirror.unhabitat.org/downloads/docs/GRHS2011/ GRHS2011CaseStudyChapter06DaresSalaam.pdf].
    27.
  27.  Douglas, I. (2016). The challenge of urban poverty for the use of green infrastructure on floodplains and wetlands to reduce flood impacts in intertropical Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning 180: 262: 272.
    28.
  28.  Douglas, I., Alam, K., Maghendra, M., McDonnell, Y., McLean, L., & Campbell, J. (2008). Unjust waters: climate change, flooding and the urban poor in Africa. Environment and Urbanization, 20(1), 187–205.
    29.
  29.  Dovey, K., & King, R. (2011). Forms of informality: Morphology and visibility of informal settlements. Built Environment, 37(1), 11–29.
    30.
  30. Drechsel, P., Graefe, S., Sonou, M., & Cofie, O. O. (2006). Informal irrigation in urban West Africa: An overview. vol. 102 IWMI.
    31.
  31. Du Toit, M., Cilliers, S., Dallimer, M., Goddard, M., Guenat, S. & Cornelius, S. (2018). Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning [online]. 180. pp 249-261. DOI: 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.06.001
    32.
  32. Dubbeling, M.; Bracalenti, L.; Lagorio, L. (2009). Participatory design of public spaces for urban agriculture, Rosario, Argentina, Open House International 34(2): 36–49.
    33.
  33. Dunne, R. J. (2005). Marginality: A conceptual extension. In R. M. Dennis (Ed.), Marginality, power, and social structure: Issues in race, class, and gender analysis. Research in race and ethnic relations 12: 11–28. Oxford: Elsevier.
    34.
  34. Elias, P. (2011). Local knowledge and capacity for global environmental change adaptation in urban slums and informal settlements of the developing world. UGEC Viewpoints 6: 38-42.
    35.
  35. Fernandes, L. (2004). The politics of forgetting: Class politics, state power and the restructuring of urban space in India. Urban Studies, 41(12), 2415–2430. https://doi. org/10.1080/00420980412331297609.
    36.
  36.  Gallaher, C.M., Kerr, J.M., Njenga, M., Karanja, N.K. and WinklerPrins, A.M.G.A. (2013). Urban agriculture, social capital, and food security in the Kibera slums of Nairobi, Kenya, Agriculture and Human Values 30 (3): 389-404.
    37.
  37. Garland, A. M., Massoumi, M., & Ruble, B. A. (2007). Global urban poverty: setting the agenda. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Retrieved from https://www.wil- soncenter.org/sites/default/files/GlobalPoverty.pdf
    38.
  38. Godshalk, A. & Zencey, E. (2014). Bio-centers: ecological sanitation and renewable energy harvesting in informal settlements. Landscape Research Record 4: 287-299.
    39.
  39. Goodhand, J. (2003). Enduring disorder and persistent poverty: A review of the linkages between war and chronic poverty. World Development 31(3), 629–646.
    40.
  40.  Gotts, M.. van Voorn, N., A.K.,  Polhill, G., de Jong, J. G.,  E., Edmonds, B., Hofstede, G.J., and Meyer, R.  (2018). Agent-based modelling of socio-ecological systems: Models, projects and ontologies. Ecological Complexity  (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2018.07.007)
    41.
  41. Graham, M. & Ernstson, H. (2012). Co-management at the fringes: examining stakeholder perspectives at Macassar Dunes, Cape Town, South Africa – at the Intersection of high biodiversity, urban poverty, and inequality, Ecology and Society 17(3): 34.https://doi.org/10.5751/ES-04887–170334

  42.  Grahn, T. & Nyberg, L. (2017). Assessment of pluvial flood exposure and vulnerability of re- sidential areas, Int. J. Disaster Risk Reduct. 21 367–375.
    43.
  43. Green, B.N.; Johnson, C.D. & Adams, A. (2006). Writing narrative literature reviews for peer-reviewed journals: Secrets of the trade. J. Chiropr. Med., 5, 101–117.
    44.
  44. Guibrunet, L. & V. Castán Broto. (2015). The sustainability of the informal city: An urban metabolism approach. Paper presented at the 11th International Conference of the European Society for Ecological Economics (ESEE), Leeds, UK on 30 June – 3 July 2015.
    45.
  45. Gurung, G. S., & Kollmair, M. (2005). Marginality: Concepts and their limitations. IP6 working paper, 4.
    46.
  46. Herslund, L.; Backhaus, A.; Fryd, O.; Jørgensen, G.; Jensen, M.B.; Limbumba, T.M.; Liu, L.; Mguni, P.; Mkupasi, M.; Workalemahu, L. and Yeshitela, K. (2017). Conditions and opportunities for green infrastructure – Aiming for green, water-resilient cities in Addis Ababa and Dar es Salaam. Landscape and Urban Planning 180: 319-327.
    47.
  47. Husmann, C. (2016). Marginality as a Root Cause of Poverty: Identifying Marginality Hotspots in Ethiopia. World Development 78: 420-435.
    48.
  48. Inam, A. (2015). Informality and urbanism. from http://informalurbanisms.org/ informality-and-urbanism-aseem-inam-ph-d/.
    49.
  49. Kayaga, S., Godfrey, A.,  Cotton, A. Costa. C.B.  (2015). Improving on-plot sanitation management in low-income settlements of cities of developing countries: case study from Maputo, Mozambique, Int. J. Environ. Waste Manag. 16 (2) :112–132.
    50.
  50. Karekazi, S. & Majoro, L. (2002). Improving modern energy services for Africa’s urban poor. Energy Policy 30(11-12): 1015-1028.
    51.
  51. Khalifa, M.A. (2015). Evolution of informal settlements upgrading strategies in Egypt: From negligence to participatory development. Ain Shams Engineering Journal (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2015.04.008).
    52.
  52. Khalil, H.A.E.E., Ibrahim, A., Elgendy, N. & Makhlouf, N. (2018). Could/should improving the urban climate in informal areas of fast-growing cities be an integral part of upgrading processes? Cairo case.  Urban Climate 24: 63-79.
    53.
  53. Kovacic, Z., Kaviti Musango, J., Amollo Ambole, L., Buyana, K., Smit, S., Anditi, C., Mwau, B., Ogot,  M., Lwasa, S., C. Brent, A., Nsangi, G. and Sseviiri, H. (2019). Interrogating differences: A comparative analysis of Africa’s informal settlements. World Development 122: 614-627.
    54.
  54. Kovacic, Z. & M. Giampietro. (2016). Between theory and quantification: An integrated analysis of metabolic patterns of informal urban settlements. Energy Policy 100: 377-386. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.06.047).
    55.
  55. Liu, J., Dietz, T., Carpenter, S.R., Alberti, M., Folke, C., Moran, E., Ostrom, E., (2007). Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317 (5844), 1513–1516.
    56.
  56. Lindley, S.; Pauleit, S.; Yeshitela, K.; Cilliers, S. and Shackleton, C. (2018). Rethinking urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services from the perspective of sub-Saharan African cities. Landscape and Urban Planning 180: 328- 338.
    57.
  57. Lindley, S.; Pauleit, S.; Yeshitela, K.; Cilliers, S. and Shackleton, C. (2018). Rethinking urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services from the perspective of sub-Saharan African cities. Landscape and Urban Planning 180: 328- 338.
    58.
  58. Lombard, M. (2014). Constructing ordinary places: Place-making in urban informal settlements in Mexico. Progress in Planning 94: 1-53.
    59.
  59. Madanipour, A. (2006). Urban planning and development in Tehran. Cities 23(6): 433-438.
    60.
  60. Makinde, O. A. (2018). Energy metabolism in a hybrid/multi-structured urban informal settlement. Stellenbosch University.
    61.
  61. McFarlane, C., (2012). The entrepreneurial slum: Civil society, mobility and the co-pro- duction of urban development. Urban Stud. 49 (13), 2795–2816.
    62.
  62. Mehretu, A., Pigozzi, B. W., & Sommers, L. M. (2000). Concepts in social and spatial marginality. Geografiska Annaler. Series B. Human Geography 82(2), 89–101.
    63.
  63. Mills, G. (1992). The Spatial Structure of Ideology in Informal Settlements: A Case Study in Southern Africa. Building and Environment 27 (1): 13-21.
    64.
  64. Minnery, J.; Argo, T.; Winarso, H.; Hau, D.; Veneracion, C.C.; Forbes, D.; Childs, I. (2013). Slum upgrading and urban governance: Case studies in three South East Asian cities. Habitat Int. 39, 162–169.
    65.
  65. Miranda, R.F.C., Grottera, C. and Giampietro, M. (2007). Understanding slums: analysis of the metabolic pattern of the Vidigal favela in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Environ Dev Sustain. (https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-016-9810-y)
    66.
  66. Montoya, J., Cartes, I. and Zumelzu, A. (2019). Indicators for evaluating sustainability in Bogota’s informal settlements: definition and validation. Sustainable Cities and Society. in press, 101896.
    67.
  67. Mollat, M. C. (2014). Ecological food sense: Connections between food waste flows and food production in Enkanini informal settlement, Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch: Faculty of Economics and Management Sciences, Stellenbosch University, 2014.
    68.
  68. Mulligan, J. Harper, J., Kipkemboi, P., Ngobi,  B., Collins, A. (2016). Community-responsive adaptation to flooding in Kibera, Kenya, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers-Engineering Sustainability, vol. 170, Thomas Telford Ltd: 268–280 No. 5.
    69.
  69. Mulligan, J., Bukachi, V., Clause, J.C., Jewell, R., Karimi, F. and Odbert, C. (2019). Hybrid infrastructures, hybrid governance: New evidence from Nairobi (Kenya) on green-blue-grey infrastructure in informal settlements. Anthropocene. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2019.100227).
    70.
  70.  Muringathuparambil, R.J., Musango, J.K., Brent, A.C. and Currie, P. (2017). Developing building typologies to examine energy efficiency in representative low-cost buildings in Cape Town townships. Sustainable Cities and Society. 33: 1-17.
    71.
  71.  Niva, V., Taka, M. & Varis, O. (2019). Rural-Urban Migration and the Growth of Informal Settlements: A Socio-Ecological System Conceptualization with Insights Through a “Water Lens”. Sustainability, 11, 3487.
    72.
  72. Ochieng, G.; Ojo, O.; Ogedengbe, K.; Ndambuki, J. (2011). Open wells, sanitary features, pollutions and water qualities: case study of Ibadan slums, Nigeria, International Journal of the Physical Sciences 6(13): 3062–3073.
    73.
  73. Pandey, R., AlatalO, J.M., Thapliyal, K., Chauham, S., Archie, K.M., Gupta, A.K., Jha, S.K. & Kumar, M. (2018). Climate change vulnerability in urban slum communities: Investigating household adaptation and decision-making capacity in the Indian Himalaya. Ecological Indicators 90: 379-391.
    74.
  74. Parikh, P.; Parikh, H. & Mcrobie, A. (2012). The role of infrastructure in improving human settlements. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Urban Design and Planning. 166(2): 101-118.
    75.
  75. Phukan, D. K. (2014). Levels of some basic amenities in the slums and their impacts on ecology: a case study of Jorhat City, Assam. International Journal of Science and Research 3(1): 71–74.
    76.
  76. Pingali, P., Schneider, K., & Zurek, M. (2013). Poverty, agriculture and the environment: The case of Sub-Saharan Africa. In J. von Braun, & F. W. Gatzweiler (Eds.), Marginality. Addressing the nexus of poverty, exclusion and ecology (pp. 151–168). Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London: Springer.
    77.
  77. Potsiou, C. (2014). Policies for formalization of informal development: Recent experience from southeastern Europe. Land Use Policy 36: 33-46.
    78.
  78. Prain, G., & Lee-Smith, D. (2010). Urban agriculture in Africa: What has been learned? In African urban harvest agriculture in the cities of Cameroon, Kenya and Uganda (pp. 13–39). Springer. (https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6250-8).
    79.
  79. Revell, K. (2010). Working with informality: increasing resilience in cities of the Global South. 46th ISOCARP Congress, Nairobi, Kenya.
    80.
  80. Roy, A. (2005). Urban informality: Toward an epistemology of planning. Journal of the American Planning Association, 71(2), 147–158. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 01944360508976689.
    81.
  81. Roy, D., Lees, M. H., Palavalli, B., Pfeffer, K., & Peter Sloot, M. A. (2014). The emergence of slums: A contemporary view on simulation models. Environmental Modelling & Software, 59: 76–90.
    82.
  82. Roy, M., Shemdoe, R., Hulme, D., Mwageni, N. & Gough, A. (2018). Climate change and declining levels of green structures: Life in informal settlements of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Landscape and Urban Planning, 180: 282-293.
    83.
  83. Royden-Turner, S. (2012). From eradication to intervention: Urban informal ecosystem. (Master Thesis) University of Cape Town Accessed 14 April 2016 from: http:// www.informalsouth.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/from-eradication-to-intervention.pdf
    84.
  84.  Rubio Scarano, F. (2017). Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change: Concept, scalability and a role for conservation science. Perspectives in Ecology and Conservation, 15 (2), 65–73.
    85.
  85. Sakijege, T., Lupala, J., Sheuya. S. (2012). Flooding, flood risks and coping strategies in urban informal residential areas: the case of Keko Machungwa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Jàmbá: J. Disaster Risk Stud. 4 (1) 1–10.
    86.
  86. Satterthwaite, D., (2011). Upgrading dense informal settlements: the potential for health and well-being. Cities Health Well-Being 1–3.
    87.
  87. Satterthwaite, D., (2013). The political underpinnings of cities’ accumulated resilience to climate change. Environ. Urban. 25 (2), 381–391.
    88.
  88. Shatkin, G. (2004). Planning to forget: Informal settlements as “forgotten places” in globalising metro Manila. Urban Studies, 41(12), 2469–2484. https://doi.org/10. 1080/00420980412331297636.
    89.
  89. Shackleton, C.; Hebinck, P.; Kaoma, H.; Chishaleshale, M.; Chinyimba, A.; Shackleton, S.; Gambiza, S.; Gumbo, D. (2014). Low-cost housing developments in South Africa miss the opportunity for household level greening, Land Use Policy 36: 500–509. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2013.10.002)
    90.
  90. Sletto, B., Tabory, S. & Strickler, K. (2019). Sustainable urban water management and integrated development in T informal settlements: The contested politics of co-production in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. Global Environmental Change 54: 195-202.
    91.
  91. Smit, S., Musango, J.K., Kovacic, Z. and Brent, A.C. (2017). Conceptualizing slum in an urban African context. Cities 62: 107-119.
    92.
  92. Smit, S., Musango, J. K., & Brent, A. C. (2019). Understanding electricity legitimacy dynamics in an urban informal settlement in South Africa: A community-based system dynamics approach. Energy for Sustainable Development, 49, 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2019.01.004.
    93.
  93.  Soyinka, O. & Siu, M.W.K. (2018). Urban informality, housing insecurity, and social exclusion; concept and case study assessment for sustainable urban development. City, Culture and Society (http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccs.2018.03.005). 
    94.
  94. Srinivas, H. (1994). Defining squatter settlements. Available at http://www.gdrc.org/ uem/define-squatter.html Accessed 27.07.04.
    95.
  95. Teferi, Z.A. & Newman, P. (2017). Slum regeneration and sustainability: Applying the extended metabolism model and the SDGs. Sustainability 9: 2273. (http://doi.org/10.3390/su9122273).
    96.
  96. Toit, J. du., Cilliers, M., Dallimer, S.S., Goddard, M., Guenat, S., & Cornelius, S.F. (2018). Urban green infrastructure and ecosystem services in sub-Saharan Africa. Landscape and Urban Planning (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.06.001)
    97.
  97. Turner BL, Kasperson RE. & Matson PA. (2003). A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. PNAS 100(14):8074-8079.
    98.
  98.  Uddin, N. (2018). Assessing urban sustainability of slum settlements in Bangladesh: Evidence from Chittagong city. Journal of Urban Management (http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jum.2018.03.002).
    99.
  99. UN-Habitat. (2003).  The challenge of slums: global report on human settlements Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal 2004;15(3):337-338.
    100.
  100. UN Habitat. World Cities Report (2016). Urbanization and Development–Emerging Futures; UN-Habitat: Nairobi, Kenya, 2016; p. 262.
    101.
  101. UN-Habitat. (2014). Habitat III issue papers: Informal settlements. New York: UN-Habitat.
    102.
  102. Vollmer, D. and Gret-Regamey, A. (2013). Rivers as municipal infrastructure: Demand for environmental services in informal settlements along an Indonesian river. 23: 1542-1555.
    103.
  103. Von Braun, J., & Gatzweiler, F. W. (Eds.) (2013). Marginality. Addressing the nexus of poverty, exclusion and ecology. Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London: Springer.
    104.
  104. Waters, J. (2013). The role of ecosystem services and adaptive capacity in the resilience of poor urban areas, Unpublished PhD thesis, school of environmental studies, university of East Anglia.
    105.
  105.  Webb, N. (2011). When is enough, enough? Advocacy, evidence and criticism in the field of urban agriculture in South Africa, Development Southern Africa 28(2): 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/0376835X.2011.570067
    106.
  106.  Wekesa, B. W., Steyn, G. S., & Otieno, F. A. O. F. (2011). A review of physical and socio- economic characteristics and intervention approaches of informal settlements. Habitat International, 35(2), 238–245. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2010.09. 006.
    107.
  107.  Williams, D.S., Costa, M.M., Sutherland, C., Celliers, L. and Scheffran, J. (2019). Vulnerability of informal settlements in the context of rapid urbanization and climate change. Environment and Urbanization. 31(1): 157-176.
    108.
  108. Woolf, S., Twigg, J., Parikh, P. & Karaoglou, A. (2016). Towards measurable resilience: A novel framework tool for the assessment of resilience levels in slums. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. (http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.08.003).
    109.
  109. Zahra, K., Ashraf, A., Zafar, T. & Yaseen, B.M. (2017). Marginality and Social Exclusion in Punjab, Pakistan: A Threat to Urban Sustainability. Sustainable Cities and Society (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.11.009)
    110.
  110. Zahra, D., Mbatha, S., Campos, L., Queface, A., Beleza, A., Cavoli, C., Achuthan, K. and Parikh, P. (2019). Rapid flood risk assessment of informal urban settlements in Maputo, T Mozambique: The case of Maxaquene A. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 40, 101270.
    111.

سند

Sanad is a platform for managing Azad University publications

الروابط

المراكز ذات الصلة

دعامة

الصفحات الرسمية

حقوق هذا الموقع الإلكتروني مملوكة لنظام SANAD Press Management. © 1442-1446

الصفحة الرئيسية| دخول| معلومات عنا| اتصل بنا|
[English] [فارسی] [en] [fa]