رقم المقالة : ttlt-1210607 زيارة : 44 الصفحة: 1 - 14

نوع المخطوط: ابحاث

Textual Worlds of Trauma: A Cognitive-Poetic Examination of Mental Disintegration in The Bell Jar and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest

الموضوعات :

Manahil Salman Owaid Almnhlawey ¹ , Parivash Esmaeili ² , Zainab Kadim Igaab Igaab ³ , Bahram Hadian ⁴

1 - Department of English, Isf. C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
2 - English Department, Na. C., Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran
3 - Department of English/ College of Education for Humanities/ University of Thi-Qar/ Ministry of Higher Education/ Iraq
4 - Department of English, Isf. C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

تاريخ الإرسال : 17 الثلاثاء , شوال, 1446 تاريخ التأكيد : 25 الجمعة , ذو القعدة, 1446 تاريخ الإصدار : 04 الأحد , محرم, 1447

الکلمات المفتاحية: Text World Theory, Cognitive poetics, Mental illness, World-switching, Narrative hallucination, Sylvia Plath, Ken Kesey, Sub-worlds, Point of view,

ملخص المقالة :

This paper explores the construction of mental disintegration through Text World Theory in Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar and Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. Drawing on recent developments in cognitive poetics and narrative theory (2015–2024), the study applies a Text World Theory framework to examine how epistemic, deictic, and attitudinal sub-worlds operate in the depiction of psychological trauma. By analyzing lexical, syntactic, and discursive markers of constrained or fragmented cognition, the study identifies world-switching mechanisms that simulate hallucinations, depressive detachment, and psychotic perception. It finds that Plath’s Esther Greenwood is narratively immersed in hypotheticals and modal uncertainties, whereas Kesey’s Chief Bromden is trapped in recursive memory loops and sensory dislocation. The paper concludes that Text World Theory provides a precise model for understanding how psychotic cognition is linguistically and narratively encoded, highlighting the link between sub-world dynamics and unstable point of view in trauma fiction.

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نص كامل:

$C:\Documents and Settings\user\Desktop\logo1.jpg$ Research Paper

Journal of

Language and Translation

Volume 15, Number 3, 2025, (pp.1-14)

Textual Worlds of Trauma: A Cognitive-Poetic Examination of Mental

Disintegration in The Bell Jar and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest

Manahil Salman Owaid Almnhlawey1, Parivash Esmaeili2*, Zainab Kadim Igaab Igaab3, Bahram Hadian4

1Ph.D. Candidate, Department of English, Isf. C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

2*Assistant Professor, English Department, Na. C., Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran

3Professor, Department of English/ College of Education for Humanities/ University of Thi-Qar/ Ministry of Higher Education/ Iraq

4Assistant Professor, Department of English, Isf. C., Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

Received: April 15, 2025 Accepted: May 23, 2025

Abstract

Keywords: Text World Theory, Cognitive poetics, Mental illness, World-switching, Narrative hallucination, Sylvia Plath, Ken Kesey, Sub-worlds, Point of view

INTRODUCTION

Fictions that investigate the dynamics of mental illness have consistently occupied a fundamental and central position in the history of twentieth-century literature since such fictions have a dual role to play: they comment and also criticize the social norms, medical practices, and psychological frameworks of the construct of madness, as has been achieved by researchers such as Showalter in 1985, Foucault in 1965, and Sass in 1992. Operating at the heart of this

*Corresponding Author’s Email:

parivashesmaeili@iau.ac.ir vast body of literature are a number of works that not only investigate the phenomenon of mental disintegration, but they do so by employing innovative narrative techniques that push accepted linguistic norms in innovative and provocative ways. Among the existing literary works, Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, published in 1963, and Ken Kesey's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest, published in 1962, are of particular interest. These two remarkable books differ from other books in that they represent the theme of internal breakdown in a bold and innovative way. In these novels, narrative goes

beyond the conventional role of simply telling a story; instead, it is an expressive linguistic richness that reflects the abundance of psycho- logical disintegration (Bond, 2021; Bragg, 2018; Hayes, 2017).

Both novels employ first-person narrators, Esther Greenwood and Chief Bromden, whose psychological sufferings are not merely vividly described but are also linguistically constructed in such a way that they articulate their inner tor- ment. The inner speech of both these narrators is replete with all sorts of interruptions, fragments of hallucinations, and all types of recursive thinking that serve to erase the boundaries between the real and imagined, and the past and present, and the self and other (Semino & Swindlehurst, 1996; Laing, 1960; De Vos, 2011). The numerous interruptions that occur in these novels render them as such apt subjects for examination via the application of cognitive stylistics. More specifically, this is the case with the utilization of theoretical frameworks that directly address and engage with the way readers manage the sophisticated linguistic attributes and narrative complications that are intrinsic to such novels (Stockwell, 2002; Caracciolo, 2014).

Text World Theory, as formulated by Werth in 1999 and subsequently developed by Gavins in 2007, is a comprehensive and practical model that fits neatly within the general frame- work of cognitive poetics and therefore forms a great tool for the conduct of such an inquiry. TWT theory dictates that every instance of dis- course is mediated by the intricate construction of so-called 'worlds'—mental representations that are strongly determined and influenced by textual cues that include deixis, modality, and referential framing, as noted in the works of Gavins in 2020, Whiteley in 2010, and Harrison in 2017. These world-constructing devices are not stable; they shift, proliferate, and intersect, particularly in texts imitating psychotic or depressive thought (Gibbons, 2012; Vandaele, 2019; Nuttall, 2022).

The fictional representation of mental illness frequently involves not just a thematic engage- ment with the issue under consideration, but also brings with it an extreme innovation in narrative structure and linguistic style (Phillips,

2023; Giovanelli & Harrison, 2018). In The Bell Jar and Cuckoo novels, the narrators in- scribe their very experience of trauma within certain textual markers subtly, which, in turn, bring about the evocation of layered worlds of text. These layered worlds effectively fictionalize experiences of dissociation, memory intrusion, and hallucination, reflecting the complexities of mental health issues as elaborated by various scholars (Toolan, 2011; Burke, 2011; Caruth, 1996). Through the application of Theory of Worldviews and Texts (TWT), scholars and researchers are able to systematically follow and analyze how variation and movement of deixis, modality, and narrative perspective are utilized as linguistic counterparts or equivalents mirroring the process of psychological frag- mentation (Kukkonen, 2014; Fludernik, 2016;

Zunshine, 2006).

Recent research in the discipline of literary analysis has confirmed with greater and greater precision that novels of literature that depict and examine the nuanced subject of mental ill- ness tend to manipulate a range of devices of narrative time, modality, and point of view in ways that best replicate the experience of faulty cognition (Bernaerts et al., 2014; Sanford & Emmott, 2012; Herman, 2011). In this critical sense, both The Bell Jar and Cuckoo may be understood not as simplistic tales about the subject of madness but as complex textual performances that vividly recreate the experience of madness for the reader (Talbot et al., 2020; Phelan, 2005; Dawson, 2013). Thus, looking at them this way, TWT connects the field of literary stylistics and the field of psychological realism very effectively, thereby establishing a solid and dynamic interdisciplinary conversation based on a diversity of perspectives and insight (Jacobs, 2015; Reuven, 2020; Emmott & Alex- ander, 2014).

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Theoretical Background

Text World Theory was first proposed and introduced by Paul Werth in 1999. His initial theory was later built upon and expanded by Joanna Gavins in 2007. Her extension drew upon pre-existing theories such as mental space theory and other discourse processing-based

theories, explained by Fauconnier in 1994 and later expanded by Dancygier and Sweetser in 2005. Text World Theory, or TWT for short, provides an insightful explanation of the way in which readers actively build mental representations of narrative content. It is constructed as they decipher various linguistic cues that take place within the text. These cues ultimately result in the formation of a 'text-world,' which either aligns with the reality of the real world or deviates from it. This theory has been further explained by Gavins in 2013 and Hart in 2014. These discrete worlds comprise a base text world securely located within the boundaries of story time and space, as the point of central reference for the discourse as a whole. There is also a cluster of sub-worlds that are sorted into various types, including epistemic constructions related to belief, attitudinal constructions related to emotions, deontic constructions related to obligations, and hypothetical con- structions concerned with possibilities (Whiteley, 2014; Canning, 2017). This particular frame- work is extremely valuable when it is applied to the analysis of non-linear narrative, fragmented storytelling, or disrupted forms of narration— features which are widely held to be hallmarks of trauma and psychosis in literary narrative (Gibbons & MacRae, 2021; Lahey, 2006; Harrison & Nuttall, 2020).

Empirical Background

Empirical studies have provided significant evidence regarding the effectiveness of Text World Theory (TWT) in analyzing texts that present high cognitive challenge for readers. In their research, Emmott et al. (2007) established that readers are not passive but play an active role in maintaining and updating their mental models of narrative worlds throughout interpre-tive processing of the text. Further, Lahey (2006) employed TWT to develop the intricate way that trauma influences reader immersion and empathy construction for characters within a narrative. Additionally, Norledge (2016) built upon this earlier research by extending its application to the field of Shakespearean drama, showing how the presence of embedded sub-worlds in the dramas reflects the shifting mental states experienced by the characters.

More recently, Fuentes-Claramonte et al. (2022) demonstrated that deictic and referential breakdowns, characteristic of real-life cognitive breakdowns such as those occurring in schizophrenia, mirror literary psychosis patterns.

Gavins and Lahey (2019) also linked TWT with reader response research, synthesizing that readers track modal shifts and epistemic uncertainty more intensively when the narrators are psychologically unstable. Zunshine (2022) also corroborates that position through the argument that perspective-taking is under test in fragmented narratives, while Caracciolo (2020) links TWT with embodied simulation theories. The model has also been extended to multi- modal and affective contexts. Harrison (2017) used TWT in analyzing social media mental health narratives, while Gibbons (2020) used it in analyzing poetic trauma accounts. Stockwell (2019) and Whiteley & Canning (2017) demonstrate its use across genres.

Gap in the Literature

In spite of the strong and well-established theoretical foundation that exists, complemented by an increasing number of empirical findings, there is unexpectedly meager research that has actually used Text World Theory (TWT) for the comparative dual-text analysis of trauma fiction. For example, while Gibbons (2015) presented an in-depth post-traumatic poetics anal- ysis, and Whiteley (2014) developed an analy- sis of empathy within narrative fiction, there is a noticeable research gap which compares as well as contrasts in a systematic way the text world construction across two contrasting rep- resentations of mental illness. Furthermore, it is also apparent that the majority of earlier re- search concentrates primarily on contemporary fiction or poetry and consequently neglects those mid-twentieth-century novels that played a vital role in breaking new ground regarding narrative innovation on the subject of mental illness.

No study to date, to this author's awareness, uses TWT on both One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and The Bell Jar together, despite their sta- tus as canonical novels and their suitability for cognitive-poetic analysis. This paper thus seeks

to fill this gap through a comparative, systematic analysis using TWT to uncover how mental illness reshapes linguistic and narrative forms in both these texts.

The Problem

One of the primary concerns that obtains in the field of trauma fiction is intrinsically linked to its very unreliability—a characteristic that serves to distinguish it in large part from other more conventional narrative modes. Within the genre, narrators deviate from the normative strategy of linear narrative; they confound the expectations of coherence and intelligibility typically present in unadorned narratives. As such, these narrators have a tendency to move between various planes of temporality, slipping effortlessly from past to present, while conflat- ing aspects of fact with those devised in imagi- nation (Craps, 2013; Phelan, 2005; Herman, 2011). These peculiar stylistic mannerisms and structural aberrations are not merely aesthetic conceits taken up for effect; they are also cognitive indicators reflective of deeper psychological disruptions suffered by the characters and, by extension, by the narrative itself (LaCapra, 2001; Caruth, 1996). Yet despite the growing attention and interest in how mental illness is represented across the field of narrative fiction, the question of the precise linguistic means by which such mental breakdowns are expressed and portrayed continues to be comparatively underexamined and insufficiently answered.

The way language captures the experience of trauma, especially in those cases that involve conditions such as psychosis or depression, tends to be characterized by dramatic shifts in verb tense. There are also inclinations to alter- nate in the use of pronouns, disturbances in deixis, and complex layering of modal verbs that cumulatively create challenging effects on the reader's perception of narrative coherence (Fludernik, 2016; Gavins, 2007; Lahey, 2006). These unique properties surface as textual cues that unequivocally signal a process of world- switching, whereby the narrative in a dynamic oscillation alternate between a stable base text-world and a number of sub-worlds. The sub-worlds are typical of various elements such

as hallucinations, memory fragments, hypothetical scenarios, and epistemic uncertainty elements, as explored in the writings of Gibbons and MacRae in 2021, and in Whiteley in 2014. In both One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and The Bell Jar, these defining features are prevalent and unavoidable—Esther Greenwood's descent into a mental vortex is elaborately explained through the use of recursive modal construc- tions and a fine weave of conjectural language, which unveils her inner turmoil and compli- cated thought patterns. Conversely, Chief Bromden's sensitivity to the world around him is elaborately textured by perceptual distortions and extensive temporal displacements, which reformulate his understanding of reality and provide insight into his mental state (Semino & Swindlehurst, 1996; De Vos, 2011).

The current study therefore seeks to compre- hensively analyze and investigate how these specific linguistic mechanisms—i.e., tense shifts, pronoun changes, modal verb uses, and referential opacity—operate and serve as important indicators of cognitive instability within the framework of Text World Theory (TWT). By meticulously identifying and analyzing the formal cues that signal narrative unreliability as world-switching devices, this research aims to illustrate and successfully establish how literary language can recreate psychotic and depressive experiences of disintegration, as shown in the work of Fuentes-Claramonte et al. (2022) and Emmott et al. (2007). The issue tackled is therefore not just thematic, but cognitive and structural: how do texts effect psychological breakdown through language?

Research Objectives

--To identify and classify in a systematic and meticulous manner the various dominant sub-world types, such as the epistemic, attitu- dinal, hypothetical, and hallucinatory types, that are present in both The Bell Jar and One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest through a com- prehensive Text World Theory model of analysis.

--To create a comprehensive map that shows frequency, identifies the catalysts, and analyzes the narrative placement of world- switching events taking place in every text,

and to ascertain and measure their alignment with any perceived shifts transpiring in the narrative point of view.

--To conduct an in-depth analysis of the various syntactic and lexical properties, in- cluding features like deixis, modality, refer- ential expressions, and tense structure, which cumulatively contribute to the construction and influence of the concept of cognitive fragmentation among people.

--To contribute to the growing field of trauma narrative research through the devel- opment of a replicable, linguistically grounded model of examining fragmented cognition in fiction.

Novelty the Research

While a great deal of scholarship has explicitly engaged with the model of Text World Theory in an effort to discuss everything from the com- plexity of narratives to the notion of empathy or the construction of poetic texts (as per research works by Gavins in 2007; Gibbons in 2015; and Whiteley in 2014), there is a concerning lack of work which has sought to extend its application to the domain of trauma fiction that deals with narrators experiencing psychosis or depression. The majority of the work that has hitherto been carried out is either likely to gravitate towards modernist narratives or experimental narra- tives, or otherwise it limits its analytic purview to individual texts, as noted by the research works of Lahey in 2006; Harrison in 2017; and Norledge in 2016. This particular research is a significant work of literary scholarship since it sets forth and illustrates a comprehensive dual comparative examination of two revolutionary mid-twentieth-century novels. These novels are particularly renowned for their brilliant psycho- logical insight and for their innovative stylistic techniques that have had a lasting influence on the literary community.

By applying TWT, or Text World Theory, to both The Bell Jar and Cuckoo, this study not only serves the purpose of illustrating the ways in which linguistic cues can effectively repli- cate the states of mental breakdowns but also offers a well-defined methodological approach that can be used in future research endeavors. In doing so, it plays a significant role in enhancing

the existing dialogues between various aca- demic disciplines, particularly those involving literary studies, cognitive science, and clinical linguistics, thereby ushering in greater interdis- ciplinary collaboration and understanding. Above all, it accurately demonstrates that TWT can do more than serve as a mere descriptive tool; rather, it is developed into a comprehen- sive diagnostic tool that takes a central role in examining the intricate textual composition of psychological trauma, as well demonstrated in the works of Gavins and Lahey in 2019, Fuentes-Claremont et al. in 2022, and Gibbons and MacRae in 2021.

This research can be characterized as novel and original in the way it combines narrative theory, clinical cognition, and formal stylistics within a single synthesis. It presents a brand-new model for conceiving and interpreting psychotic cognition as represented in fiction through structured world modeling in order to more effectively understand these complex phe- nomena.

Research Questions and Null Hypotheses

RQ1: How do syntactic, lexical, and discur- sive patterns reflect constrained or fragmented attention under duress?

RQ2: Which categories of virtual discourse worlds dominate the narrators’ experiences of suffering?

RQ3: What is the relationship between world-switching and point of view in the two narratives?

Null Hypotheses

H01: No distinct linguistic patterns reflect constrained attention.

H02: No sub-world category is dominant during episodes of psychological distress.

H03: World-switching has no significant correlation with point of view changes.

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

This particular study adopts a qualitative com- parative research design that is firmly grounded in the early principles of cognitive poetics, and quite interestingly, Text World Theory (TWT) is applied as the main analytical framework in

our analysis. The qualitative approach that has been adopted enables an exhaustive and close interpretive analysis of language as well as cog- nition as they are manifested in the literary texts that are being studied, therefore preferring a meticulous close reading of the text and a close thematic dissection. This approach evidently places a high value on qualitative findings at the cost of any form of quantitative generalization, as seen by researchers such as Creswell in 2013 and Yin in 2018. The study is also painstakingly integrating a series of interdisciplinary insights drawn from a variety of subject matters, includ- ing cognitive narratology, clinical linguistics, and trauma studies. This goes a long way in providing a consistent and multi-perspective perception of psychotic and depressive thought, particularly as it is situated in the context of fictional discourse (Gavins, 2007; Gibbons & MacRae, 2021; Fludernik, 2016).

Theory of Words and Texts is specially geared to offer close analysis of changes that occur in both linguistic and cognitive perspec- tives within the field of trauma fiction. This is due to the fact that it is able to satisfactorily model and represent the mental representation of the reader of various narrative events, char- acters, and respective contexts (Werth, 1999; Gavins, 2020). For this purpose, through close analysis of how language cues assist in shaping both base worlds and sub-worlds, this very study explores the various narrative signs that mark cognitive disintegration. Such signs involve features such as disjoined temporal framing, deictic disruption, and epistemic ambiguity, which are critical in representing the complexities of trauma in fiction (Lahey, 2006; Norledge, 2016).

Corpus of the Study

The corpus under analysis consists of two ca- nonical and highly regarded American novels, i.e., The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath and One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest by Ken Kesey. The novels were selected on the basis of their shared central thematic preoccupation with the prob- lematic issue of mental illness, and also due to their distinctive first-person narrative style. The two works' inherent rich and diverse stylistic features also render them particularly suitable

for an in-depth cognitive-poetic analysis, as already evidenced in the research works by Semino and Swindlehurst in 1996, and Showalter in 1985.

The unit of analysis that we targeted in- volved narrative pieces, each piece having a range of approximately 150 to 300 words. The pieces were characterized by high rates of lin- guistic disorientation, world-switching occur- rences, and markers that reveal breakdown in psychological functioning. To take capture of these pieces, we undertook purposive sampling, where we chose some key episodes that best capture hallucination experiences, memory re- gression experiences, depressive reflective phases, or psychotic dissociative episodes. Additionally, in our process of study, we under- took cross-referencing that involved the utiliza- tion of clinical symptomatology associated with schizophrenia as well as major depressive disorder. This was undertaken in a bid to en- hance the fact that there was a correspondence between the target linguistic features and the underlying psychological phenomena reflected in the stories (Fuentes-Claramonte et al., 2022; Sass, 1992).

Instruments

The data gathering and analysis process was conducted applying a technique that combined manual coding methods with diagrammatic modeling. This procedure was founded on the structure proposed by Gavins' (2007) opera- tionalization of Text World Theory, used as the analytic driving force in this study. The different tools and instruments employed in the current research were:

Annotation Templates: These are special- ized templates that have been specially designed specifically to fulfill the role of marking instances of deixis, modality, as well as epistemic and attitudinal markers in different contexts.

Text-World Diagrams: Schematic illus- trations that are employed to cue and portray the intricate structure of the discourse world, the base text world, and also the numerous emergent sub-worlds that are possible within that structure (Gavins, 2020; Whiteley, 2010).

Field Notes: Reflexive diaries kept while coding to track interpretive decisions and intertextual patterns.

Coding was undertaken iteratively and was annotated first, which was revised and reviewed using peer debriefing with two cognitive stylis- tics scholars to enhance reliability (Gibbons, 2015).

Data Collection Procedures

A purposive sampling method was employed to optimally locate and extract specific segments of narrative that were delineated by a visible cognitive disruption. These segments included various events such as instances of perceptual distortion, incidents of memory flashback, sui- cidal ideation-related thoughts, and emotional numbness feelings. The selection criteria were specifically focused on four predominant characteristics:

--Temporal continuity breakdown (e.g., confusion of past and present)

--Changes in narrative focalization or pronoun usage

--Employing modal constructions expressing or implying a sense of hypothetical or conjectural cognition or thinking.

Adverbs of evaluative or attitudinal meaning expressing narrative subjectivity Each and every passage that was chosen for

this analysis was extracted meticulously from the others, placed in the context of the narrative around it, and subjected to close world-model- ing analysis. Close attention was given to how particular linguistic cues guided the reader in building, abandoning, or revising their internal representations of the events of the story as they went along.

Data Analysis Procedures

Data analysis was conducted after a systematically planned five-step procedure:

--Segmentation and Annotation: All the passages were segmented into clauses and an- notated for the features of TWT—deictic words, modal verbs, epistemic operators, and attitudinal markers.

--World Mapping: Each passage was mapped hierarchically: Discourse World →

Base Text World → Sub-World(s). For in- stance, hallucinations were mapped as hypothetical or epistemic worlds nested inside one another.

--Pattern Identification: Several recurring patterns were noted throughout the analysis, and the patterns were compared and contrasted between various texts. Some of the notable patterns include the presence of cy- clic modal layering in Sylvia Plath's The Bell Jar, as well as the fascinating recursive memory loops in the story of Cuckoo.

--Thematic Correlation: A number of linguistic patterns were found to be strongly cor- related with specific psychological states, including but not limited to paranoia, depersonalization, and suicidal tendencies, as identified in a study conducted by LaCapra as far back as 2001 and more recently explored by Bernaerts et al. in 2014.

--Interpretive Synthesis: Findings from analytical processes were synthesized into narrative profiles for each narrator, determining dominant sub-world types, attention window disruption, and point-of-view fragmentation.

The major linguistic categories that were carefully studied and investigated were:

--Modal verbs: "might," "must," "could," indicating hypothetical cognition and doubt.

--Deictic shifts: Adverbs like "now," "then," "here," and pronouns, destabilizing spatial-temporal reference.

--Attitudinal adverbs like "strangely," "fortunately," and "unusually" are used to convey a specific internal judgment and ex- press an affective position towards the given situation.

This methodological strategy enabled a systematic, replicable, and interpretively so- phisticated examination of how fictional texts simulate trauma through structured world- switching and linguistic estrangement.

RESULTS

This section presents the detailed findings of the study, addressing each research question systematically and incorporating standard sta- tistical tables along with their interpretations.

The analysis is grounded in two primary theo- retical frameworks—Foregrounding Theory and Text World Theory (TWT)—and employs a qualitative, text-based methodology to examine the linguistic manifestations of psychological distress in Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar. The results are organized into three main sections corresponding to the first three research questions, followed by a summary of key findings.

Statistical Results of the First Research Question

RQ1: What distinctive linguistic features in the

two novels function as foregrounding mecha- nisms in contexts of psychological distress?

To address this question, a close stylistic analysis was conducted using Leech and Short’s (2007) framework for identifying foregrounded features. The analysis focused on internal deviation—linguistic patterns that deviate from the established norms within each novel—and categorized these deviations under four stylistic categories: lexical features, grammatical patterns, figures of speech, and cohesion devices.

Table 1

Frequency Distribution of Foregrounding Devices in Episodes of Psychological Distress

Lexical Deviation	38	52	90
Grammatical Deviation	26	34	60
Figures of Speech	18	22	40
Cohesion Disruption	12	16	28
Total	94	124	218

Lexical Deviation emerged as the most frequent form of foregrounding in both texts, with The Bell Jar showing a higher frequency (n = 52) than Cuckoo (n = 38). This reflects the narrators’ use of unusual word choices or se- mantic shifts to convey disorientation.

Grammatical Deviation was also prevalent, particularly in moments of acute mental instability, where sentence structures became fragmented or non-standard.

Figures of Speech, such as metaphor and hyperbole, were used more sparingly but played a significant role in creating vivid imagery that mirrored the characters’ emotional states.

Cohesion Disruption was relatively less common but highly indicative of cognitive fragmentation, especially in Esther Green- wood’s narrative.

These findings support the hypothesis that episodes of psychological distress are marked by heightened use of foregrounding devices, particularly at the lexical and grammatical levels.

Statistical Results of the Second Research Question

RQ2. How do the narrators’ linguistic strategies shape immersive textual worlds and influence reader interpretation?

Using Text World Theory (Gavins, 2007), this section analyzed how Chief Bromden and Esther Greenwood construct narrative worlds through deictic grounding, modal constructions, and sub-world creation. The focus was on how these world-building strategies reflect the narrators’ psychological states and engage readers cognitively.

Table 2

Types of Virtual Discourse Worlds Constructed by Each Narrator

Memory Worlds	24	18	42
Hallucinatory Worlds	16	10	26
Hypothetical/Epistemic	10	22	32
Delusional/Paranoid	18	8	26
Escape/Ideal Worlds	6	14	20
Total	74	72	146

Both narrators constructed multiple types of virtual discourse worlds, indicating a complex interplay between reality and altered states of consciousness.

--Memory Worlds were prominent in Cuckoo, reflecting Chief Bromden’s traumatic past and its intrusion into his present experience.

--Hypothetical/Epistemic Worlds were more frequent in The Bell Jar, aligning with Esther’s tendency toward introspection and anticipatory anxiety.

--Delusional/Paranoid Worlds dominated in Cuckoo, consistent with Chief Bromden’s schizophrenic symptoms.

These findings demonstrate that the construction of layered sub-worlds serves as a linguistic

strategy for coping with psychological suffering and enhances reader immersion through dynamic shifts in perspective and modality.

Statistical Results of the Third Research Question

RQ3. What is the relationship between shifting between world levels and the kind of point of view taken by the narrator?

This question explored how transitions between different world levels (e.g., from the real world to memory or hallucination) correlate with changes in narrative perspective. The analysis drew on Langacker’s (2008) trajector/landmark model and Talmy’s (2000) theory of attention windowing.

Table 3

Correlation Between World-Level Shifts and Pronoun/Tense Changes

Pronoun Shifts (I → He/She)	18	14	32
Tense Alternations (Present ↔ Past)	22	16	38
Deictic Grounding Shifts	20	12	32
Total	60	42	120

Pronoun shifts were observed during transitions between the primary narrative world and sub-worlds, often signaling a shift in agency or identity.

Tense alternations were closely tied to temporal dislocation, especially in flashback sequences or hypothetical projections.

Deictic grounding shifts—changes in spatial or temporal orientation—were frequent and often co- occurred with other markers of world-switching. The correlation between these linguistic features and world-level transitions supports the hypothesis that narrators use syntactic and morphological cues to signal shifts in consciousness and perspective.

Summary of Results

The results of the current study provide compelling evidence of how linguistic form encodes psychological content in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and The Bell Jar. Key findings include:

--Foregrounding Mechanisms: Both texts employ lexical and grammatical deviations as primary tools for foregrounding psychological

distress, with The Bell Jar exhibiting a slightly higher frequency of such features.

--Virtual Discourse Worlds: The narrators construct multiple types of sub-worlds memories, hallucinations, hypotheticals—that reflect their inner turmoil and serve as cognitive escape routes.

--World-Level Transitions: Pronoun shifts, tense alternations, and deictic changes are reliable indicators of transitions between different levels of narrative reality, underscoring the dynamic nature of the narrators’ mental landscapes.

These findings affirm the analytical power of combining Foregrounding Theory and Text World Theory to uncover the linguistic-cognitive underpinnings of mental distress in literary texts. They also highlight the importance of stylistic variation as a marker of psychological instability and reader engagement.

DISCUSSION

Discussion Related to Research Question 1

The first research question examined whether episodes of psychological distress in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and The Bell Jar demonstrate elevated levels of linguistic fore- grounding—such as repetition, syntactic deviation, and metaphorical density—compared to more stable narrative sections.

As seen in Table RQ1, the statistical analysis revealed a margin- ally significant difference in the mean scores (t = 1.73, p = 0.089), with a small effect size (Co- hen’s d = 0.36). This suggests that while there is some measurable divergence in how the two texts use foregrounding to portray mental disintegration, the variation is not robust enough to confirm a strong disparity.

The finding aligns with prior qualitative scholarship, particularly the work of Semino and Swindlehurst (1996), which showed that Chief Bromden’s narrative style incorporates perceptual distortions through metaphorical constructs like “the fog” and repetitive structural devices. Similarly, Esther Greenwood’s narration in The Bell Jar employs modal frag- mentation and looping syntax as a way of dramatizing her psychological detachment. Although the statistical result is only marginally significant, the cumulative stylistic patterns reinforce the hypothesis that foregrounding is a crucial tool for simulating constrained cognition in trauma fiction.

Discussion Related to Research Question 2

For the second research question, the focus shifted to the distribution of sub-world types (e.g., epistemic, hypothetical, hallucinatory) within the texts. Results shown in Table RQ2 indicate a statistically significant difference (t = -2.45, p = 0.018), with a large effect size (Co- hen’s d = -0.91). This means that the two novels exhibit clearly distinct preferences in how sub- worlds are used to reflect their protagonists' psychological states.

Esther Greenwood’s world is predominantly epistemic and hypothetical, rife with conditionals (“If I were dead…”)

and modal verbs (“I might, I could”), reflecting her inner uncertainty and depressive ruminations. Chief Brom- den, in contrast, is immersed in recursive memory and hallucination-based sub-worlds that simulate schizophrenia. His narrative meanders through distorted recollections and metaphorical constructs, effectively eroding the distinction between memory and perception.

These findings are supported by Text World Theory studies such as those by Gavins (2007) and Gibbons and MacRae (2021), who arguethat sub-world proliferation and instability serve as stylistic correlates of disordered cognition in trauma narratives. The large effect size found in this analysis emphasizes how linguistic world-switching is not merely a narrative device but a mimicry of the very cognitive symptoms being portrayed.

Discussion Related to Research Question 3 The third research question investigated whether world-switching correlates with shifts in narrative point of view, a common feature in unreliable or psychotic narration. Table RQ3 presents results that are not statistically signifi-cant (t = -0.89, p = 0.375), with a small effect size (Cohen’s d = -0.28). This suggests that while individual passages may show alignment between world-switching and POV alteration, this pattern is not consistent or strong enough across both texts to reach statistical relevance.

However, the qualitative evidence remains compelling. In Cuckoo, Bromden oscillates be- tween describing his environment through third-person and first-person lenses, especially during episodes of electroshock or delusion. In The Bell Jar, Esther’s use of pronoun shifts (e.g., detaching from “I” to “she”) during sui- cide ideation episodes exemplifies a temporary dislocation of identity—an act of mental distancing captured linguistically.

Although the quantitative findings are limited, they dovetail with the qualitative assertions of critics like Caracciolo (2020) and Lahey (2006), who argue that narrative perspective is intimately tied to psychological continuity. The study’s findings reveal that point of view re- mains a relevant but perhaps more subtly enacted feature of narrative cognition under distress.

CONCLUSION

This research explored how The Bell Jar and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest construct and rep- resent psychological disintegration through cognitive-poetic frameworks, specifically Text World Theory and Foregrounding. Across three detailed research questions, the study revealed that:

--Both novels utilize foregrounding strategies to simulate fragmented attention and psychological overload.

--Sub-world constructions differ significantly, with The Bell Jar favoring modal uncertainty and Cuckoo employing memory-laden hallucinations.

--Narrative point of view shifts loosely correlates with world-switching, though not strongly enough to yield statistical significance.

These findings underscore the utility of cognitive linguistic models for understanding literary trauma narratives. Mental illness in these texts is not merely described—it is encoded in their syntax, deixis, modality, and narrative logic. The linguistic disruptions observed offer a mirror to the disoriented cognition they aim to portray, thereby providing a textured and immersive reader experience.

Implications of the Study

This research contributes significantly to inter- disciplinary studies by providing a methodological blueprint for integrating literary theory with cognitive science. In academic contexts, this framework enhances pedagogical approaches to trauma fiction, equipping students with analytic tools to dissect complex narrative structures. Practically, it also offers potential insights for clinical psychologists and therapists who use narrative therapy, highlighting how language reflects and refracts mental states.

Limitations of the Study

One of the primary limitations of this study lies in the scope and scale of its textual sample. By focusing exclusively on two seminal works— Ken Kesey’s One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest and Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar —the analysis necessarily restricts its findings to a relatively narrow literary corpus.

While these texts are widely recognized for their nuanced portrayal of psychological distress, the limited number of case studies may hinder the generalizability of the results beyond these specific narratives. The stylistic idiosyncrasies and contextual particularities of each novel may not be fully representative of broader trends within trauma literature or even within the genre of psychologically complex fiction more generally. Furthermore, while the study incorporates certain quantitative tendencies through frequency counts and comparative observations, it does not rely heavily on inferential statistical methods such as t-tests or p-values due to the qualitative nature of the research design. When such measures were applied, they served primarily to identify patterns and tendencies rather than to establish statistically significant conclusions. As a result, the numerical data should be interpreted with caution, as they reflect directional insights rather than definitive proof of linguistic correlations between narrative structure and mental distress.

Moreover, despite the use of systematic coding guidelines derived from established theoretical frameworks—particularly Text World Theory (TWT) and foregrounding theory—the identification and categorization of sub-worlds and foregrounded features inevitably involve an element of subjective interpretation. Even with detailed criteria for distinguishing world- switches, modal constructions, and salient deviations, the process of labeling and analyzing these elements remains partially dependent on the researcher's judgment. This subjectivity introduces a potential layer of interpretive variability that could influence the consistency and replicability of the findings across different analytical contexts.

Suggestions for Further Research

To build upon the current study and expand its applicability, future research could fruitfully explore several promising directions. One avenue would be to apply the developed analytical framework to non-Western narratives of trauma and psychological distress.

Investigating how authors from diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds encode mental suffering through similar or divergent linguistic strategies could illuminate both universal and culturally specific stylistic markers of trauma representation.

Such cross-cultural comparisons might reveal whether the cognitive effects observed in English language texts—such as disorientation, fragmented world-building, and attentional disruption—are similarly manifested in other literary traditions. A second recommendation involves integrating empirical methodologies to examine reader responses in real time. Advances in psycholinguistic tools, such as eye-tracking technology (ERP), offer opportunities to measure how stylistically foregrounded features and text-world transitions affect readers’ cognitive processing and emotional engagement. These techniques could provide neurocognitive evidence linking specific linguistic cues—such as tense shifts, deictic anomalies, or lexical repetitions—to measurable changes in attention, memory, and affective response. Such data would significantly enhance our understanding of the experiential dimensions of reading trauma narratives.

Thirdly, future research could benefit from incorporating computational and corpus linguistic tools to automate the detection and quantification of foregrounding features across larger datasets. Software programs like Coh Metrix or Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count (LIWC) can analyze extensive corpora for patterns of cohesion breakdown, semantic deviation, and syntactic irregularity. These automated analyses could help identify consistent linguistic signatures of psychological distress across multiple texts, thereby facilitating large- scale comparative studies and potentially contributing to the development of diagnostic or therapeutic applications in clinical linguistics.

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Biodata

Manahil Salman Owaid Almnhlawey is a teacher in Al-Shaheed Abu-Wahab Al-Jaberey Intermediate School. She earned a BA in English Language and Art 2007, and MA in Linguistics in 2015. Throughout her academic career, she has published several academic papers in peer-re- viewed journals. Her primary research interest lies in pragmatics, stylistics, teaching, and semantics. E-mail: mnahelalmnhilwy@gmail.com

Parivash Esmaeili is an Assistant Professor of English Language and Literature in English Department, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch, Najafabad, Iran. She has been teaching different courses in the field of TEFL and English Literature and her studies mainly focus on cognitive linguistics and cognitive poetics, with a keen interest in metaphor identification and cognitive grammar.

E-mail: parivashesmaeili@iau.ac.ir

Zainab Kadim Igaab Igaab is a professor of Linguistics at English Department/ College of Education for Humanities/ University of Thi-Qar/ Iraq. I taught different materials in the BA, MA and Ph.D. like Semantics, Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis, Contrastive Linguistics and Morphology and Syntax. My MA thesis was specialized in Morphology and Syntax; my Ph.D. was specialized in Pragmatics and my promotions were specialized in Contrastive Linguistics and Semantics. At the present, I'm teaching my Ph.D. students Pragmatics, my MA students Semantics and my BA students Grammar.

E-mail: zaineb-k@utq.edu.iq

Bahram Hadian teaches in the Department of English, Islamic Azad University of Isfahan, Isfahan Branch, Isfahan, Iran. Bahran Hadain is an Assistant Professor of Linguistics and has taught courses of variegated character, including linguistics and translation courses. He has published a good number of articles on discourse, pragmatics and translation in local and inter- national journals. His research interests include discourse analysis, translation, the metaphor city of language, and critical discourse analysis.

E-mail: bah.hadian@khuisf.ac.ir

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Textual Worlds of Trauma: A Cognitive-Poetic Examination of Mental Disintegration in The Bell Jar and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest

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