Exploring the Role of Strategic Knowledge and Strategic Regulation in Iranian EFL Learners' Listening Performance: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach
الموضوعات : نشریه زبان و ترجمهMaryam Haghighi 1 , Mojgan Rashtchi 2 , Parviz Birjandi 3
1 - PhD Candidate in TEFL, Department of English, Faculty of Literature, Humanities, and Social Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
2 - Associate professor of Applied Linguistics, Department of TEFL, Faculty of Foreign
Languages, North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
3 - Professor of TEFL, Department of English, Faculty of Literature, Humanities, and Social Sciences, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
الکلمات المفتاحية: Listening performance, structural equation modeling, Strategic knowledge, Strategic regulation,
ملخص المقالة :
Drawing on the insight from metacognition theory, second language researchers conceptualize strategic knowledge and strategic regulation as the two dimensions of strategic competence in language performance. In this regard, the present study aimed at determining whether strategic knowledge and strategic regulation are related to listening performance. The study also attempted to specify how strategic knowledge and strategic regulation are related to each other and to listening performance using the structural equation modeling (SEM) approach. To this end, the data were gathered from a total of 343 Iranian EFL learners. They were required to answer a cognitive and metacognitive listening strategies questionnaire (CMLSQ) both before and immediately after completing the listening section of a sample TOEFL test. The correlational analysis showed that strategic knowledge and strategic regulation were significantly related to listening performance. Furthermore, the SEM analysis revealed that metacognitive strategies exert a significant, direct impact on cognitive strategies. The actual use of cognitive strategies, in turn, has a direct impact on listening performance. In other words, metacognitive strategy use as a latent trait produces significant, indirect effects on listening performance through cognitive strategies.
Anderson, N. J. (2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757-771). Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (2010 ). Language assessment in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baker, L., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Metacognitive skills and reading. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 353–394). New York: Longman.
Bidabadi, F., & Yamat, H. (2011). The relationship between listening strategies used by Iranian EFL freshman university students and their listening proficiency levels. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 26-32. DOI:10.5539/elt.v4n1p26
Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence and education (pp. 453–482). Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Brown, A. L., Bransford, R., Ferrara, R., & Campione, J. (1983). Learning, remembering, and understanding. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology: Cognitive development (pp. 77-166). New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1–47. DOI:10.1093/applin/i.1.1
Chang, C. A. (2008). Sources of listening anxiety in learning English as a foreign language. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106(1), 21-34. DOI:10.2466/pms.106.1.21-34
Chen, L., Zhang, R., & Liu, C. (2014). Listening strategy use and influential factors in Web-based computer assisted language learning. Journal of Computer- Assisted Learning, 30(3), 207-219. DOI:10.1111/jcal.12041
Dornyei, Z. (2003). Questionnaires in second language research: Construction, administration and processing. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dornyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. New York: Oxford University Press.
Faerch, C., & Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman.
Flavell, J. H. (1985). Cognitive development. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Goh, C. (1998). How learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2(2), 124-147.
DOI:10.1177/136216889800200203
Goh, C. (2002). Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns. System, 30(2), 185-206.
DOI:10.1016/s0346-251x(02)00004-0
Goh, C., & Hu, G. (2013). Exploring the relationship between metacognitive awareness and listening performance with questionnaire data. Language Awareness, 23(3), 255-274. DOI:10.1080/09658416.2013.769558
Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practices of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.
Liu, H. J. (2008). A study of the interrelationship between listening strategy use, listening proficiency levels, and learning style. ARECLS, 5, 84-104.
Liu, X., & Goh, C. (2006). Improving second language listening: Awareness and involvement In T. S. C. Farrell (Ed.), Language teacher research in Asia (pp. 91-106). Alexandria: TESOL.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418–437. DOI:10.1093/applin/10.4.418
O’Malley, M. J., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oller, J. W. (1979). Language tests at school. London: Longman.
Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Paris, G., & Winograd, p. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Phakiti, A. (2003). A closer look at the relationship of cognitive and metacognitive strategy use to EFL reading comprehension test performance. Language Testing, 20(1), 26-56.
DOI:10.1191/0265532203lt243oa
Phakiti, A. (2008). Construct validation of Bachman and Palmer’s (1996) strategic competence model over time in EFL reading tests. Language Testing, 25(2), 237-272. DOI:10.1177/0265532207086783
Politzer, R. L., & McGroarty, M. (1985). An exploratory study of learning behaviors and their relationship to gains in linguistic and communicative competence. TESOL Quarterly, 19(1), 103-123. DOI:10.2307/3586774
Purpura, J. E. (1997). An analysis of the relationships between test takers’ cognitive and metacognitive strategy use and second language test performance. Language Learning, 47(2), 289-294.
DOI:10.1111/0023-8333.91997009
Purpura, J. E. (1999). Learner strategy use and performance on language tests: A structural equation modeling approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rashtchi, M., & Khani, P. (2010). Improving Iranian EFL learners’ oral proficiency through metacognitive strategies instruction. Journal of English Language Studies, 1(4), 137-156.
Rubin, J. (1994). A review of second language listening comprehension research. The Modern Language Journal, 78(2), 199-217. DOI:10.2307/329010
Song, X. (2005). Language learner strategy use and English proficiency on the Michigan English Language Assessment Battery. Spaan Fellow Working Papers in Second or Foreign Language Assessment, 3(1), 1-26.
Spielberger, C. D. (1972). Conceptual and methodological issues in anxiety research. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety: Current trends in theory and research (pp. 481-492). New York: Academic Press.
Teng, H. (1997). An investigation of EFL listening strategies by Taiwanese college students. Paper presented at the Sixth International Symposium on English Teaching Taipei.
Tseng, W., Dornyei, Z., & Schmitt, N. (2006). A new approach to assessing strategic learning: The case of self-regulation in vocabulary acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 27(1), 78–102.
DOI:10.1093/applin/ami046
Vandergrift, L. (1997). The strategies of second language (French) listeners: A descriptive study. Foreign Language Annals, 30(3), 387–409. DOI:10.1111/j.1944-9720.1997.tb02362.x
Vandergrift, L. (2003). Orchestrating strategy use: Toward a model of the skilled second language listener. Language Learning, 53(3), 463–496.
DOI:10.1111/1467-9922.00232
Vandergrift, L. (2005). Relationships among motivation orientations, metacognitive awareness and proficiency in L2 listening. Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 70–89. DOI:10.1093/applin/amh039
Vandergrift, L., Goh, C. C. M., Mareschal, C. J., & Tafaghodtari, M. H. (2006). The Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire: Development and validation. Language Learning, 56(3), 431–462. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2006.00373.x
Vandergrift, L., & Goh, C. M. C. (2012). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. New York: Routledge.
Vogely, A. (1995). Perceived strategy use during performance on three authentic listening comprehension tasks. Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 41-56.
DOI:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1995. tb05414.x
Wenden, A. L. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
Zhang, D., & Goh, C. (2006). Strategy knowledge and perceived strategy use: Singaporean students’ awareness of listening and speaking strategies. Language Awareness, 15(3), 199–219.
DOI:10.2167/la342.0
Zhang, L., Goh, C. M. C., & Kunnan, A. J. (2014). Analysis of test takers’ metacognitive and cognitive strategy use and EFL reading test performance: A multi-sample SEM approach. Language Assessment Quarterly, 11(1), 76-102. DOI:10.1080/15434303.2013.853770
Zhang, L., & Zhang, L. J. (2013). Relationships between Chinese college test takers' strategy use and EFL reading test performance: A structural equation modeling approach. RELC Jornal, 44(1), 35-57. DOI:10.1177/0033688212463272
