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Article Type: Original Research

Analysis of Lexical Bundles and Adjective Collocations in Academic Writing by Native English and Arab Writers

¹ ( Department of English Languages, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran )
Sousan Sattar Boroujeni ² ( English Department, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran )
³ ( Department of English, Thi-Qar University, Nasirya, Iraq )
Elahe Sadeghi Barzani ⁴ ( Department of English Languages, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran )

Submited date : 2024-07-13 Accepted date : 2024-09-24

Keywords: Lexical bundles, adjective collocations, corpus-based analysis, Arab writers, native English writers, academic writing, EFL learners.,

Abstract :

This study investigates the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing by native English writers and Arab English writers through a corpus-based contrastive analysis that looks into types, frequencies, and discoursal functions. It reveals sharp contrasts between the two groups in the range of usage and the frequency of the lexical bundles, stance expressions, and discourse organizers promoting coherence and argumentation. By contrast, AEWs have a narrower range and make frequent errors, mostly because of L1 interference and underdeveloped formulaic language skills. Results showed that AEWs struggle with the inappropriate application of lexical bundles in discourse, and this, in turn, affects their structuring of effective arguments. The emphasis on specific instructional strategies via corpus-based tools combined with explicit teaching methodologies addressing the challenges faced by AEWs underpins these findings and thus improves their proficiency in writing academically. This study highlights the fact that only strengthening collocational competence and discoursal awareness in EFL education will help close the gap in academic writing between non-native and native writers.

The emphasis on specific instructional strategies via corpus-based tools combined with explicit teaching methodologies addressing the challenges faced by AEWs underpins these findings and thus improves their proficiency in writing academically. This study highlights the fact that only strengthening collocational competence and discoursal awareness in EFL education will help close the gap in academic writing between non-native and native writers.

References:

Alharbi, H. (2022). Title of the study. Publisher or Journal Name. DOI or URL if available.
Alhassan, M., & Woodrow, L. (2021). Title of the study. Publisher or Journal Name. DOI or URL if available.
Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Reppen, R. (1999). Corpus linguistics: Investigating language structure and use. Cambridge University Press.
Cortes, V. (2004). Lexical bundles in published and student writing. Applied Linguistics, 25(3), 156-180. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/25.3.156
Csomay, E. (2013). The role of lexical bundles in academic writing: A corpus-based analysis. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 12(2), 103-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2012.11.001
Gilmore, A. (2020). Title of the study. Publisher or Journal Name. DOI or URL if available.
Hyland, K. (2012). Academic discourse: English in a global context. Continuum.
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Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. (2022). The role of lexical bundles in academic writing: A comparative study of native and non-native writers. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 53, 100-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2021.100110
Lee, J., & Hsu, Y.-S. (2019). Pragmatic challenges in using formulaic language: A study of non-native academic writers. Language Learning, 69(1), 123-151. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12345
Liu, Y., & Liu, X. (2022). Corpus-informed pedagogy and its impact on academic writing proficiency: Evidence from EFL learners. Language Teaching Research, 26(4), 453-470. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211018567
Sharifian, F. (2017). Cultural conceptualizations in academic writing: The case of Arab English writers. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 27(1), 1-20.
Wei, L., & Lei, J.-Y. (2021). The importance of adjective-noun combinations in academic writing: A corpus-based approach to teaching collocations to EFL learners. English for Specific Purposes, 60, 45-58.
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Full-Text:

Analysis of Lexical Bundles and Adjective Collocations in Academic Writing by Native English and Arab Writers

1Ali Jabbar Zwayyer, Department of English Languages, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

alizwayyer@gmail.com

*2Assistant Professor, Sousan Sattar Boroujeni, English Department, Najafabad Branch, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad, Iran

sousansattar@phu.iaun.ac.ir

3Assistant Professor, Haider Hussein Katea Khanjar, Department of English, Thi-Qar University, Nasirya, Iraq

dr.Haider.Hussein.vKatea@utq.edu.iq

4Assistant Professor, Elahe Sadeghi, Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

elahesadeghi20@yahoo.com

2024/07/13 2024/09/24

Abstract

Keywords: Lexical bundles, adjective collocations, corpus-based analysis, Arab writers, native English writers, academic writing, EFL learners.

INTRODUCTION

Academic writing holds a central and pivotal position in the academic world, serving as a necessary vehicle for the accurate and effective transmission of knowledge and information among researchers and academics. Because of its importance, academic writing is keenly and clearly distinguished by its sharp focus on coherence, logical flow, and rhetorical clarity, all of which are indispensable in the process of successful communication. These key features are often achieved through the purposeful deployment of formulaic language, such as lexical bundles and adjective collocations. These linguistic features serve as key parts and resources in the creation of academic writing, raising its quality and readability. Lexical bundles can be defined as a sequence of words that habitually co-occur and have a leading role in successfully organizing and structuring discourse. Adjective collocations, on the other hand, refer specifically to the way in which adjectives combine with nouns or other lexical elements to form meaningful phrases. Such combinations are critical, as they contribute much toward making academic arguments presented by researchers both more precise and effective overall. Taken together, these disparate linguistic features work in unison to make not only the fluency but also the general readability of the text more accessible to readers engaged in academic discourse (Biber et al., 1999; Hyland, 2019).

While these features are generally recognized as important and, indeed, essential in effective writing, non-native English writers (NNEWs), and more specifically, Arab English writers (AEWs) often face considerable difficulties and challenges in trying to employ them effectively. The various challenges AEWs face can be attributed to both linguistic and cultural hurdles complicating their writing process: the salient syntactic structure differences, collocational preferences, and the conceptual frameworks that exist between the English language and their native languages (Sharifian, 2017; Alharbi, 2022). The various challenges faced by them are exacerbated by their limited exposure to authentic and real-life samples of academic English texts, which are an essential and indispensable prerequisite to the proper internalization of the subtle and complex patterns involved in formulaic language peculiar to academic writing, as demonstrated through the study of Zayed and Habash in 2021.

The present study therefore aims at filling and bridging the existing gaps in the current knowledge with respect to the usage patterns of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. This will be achieved through a comparative study of how these linguistic features are used in the NNEWs' academic writings as opposed to those generated by the AEWs. Through this in-depth comparison, the study seeks to elucidate and further explicate the various ways in which AEWs utilize each of these linguistic features in their writing. It further aims at highlighting and placing emphasis on the remarkable differences found in their use when compared with their native-English counterparts who are native speakers of the language. The research fully addressing and exploring these differences hopes to develop insightful pedagogical implications that can contribute meaningfully to improving the processes involved in teaching and learning EFL. This improvement is specially intended to benefit the Arab learners of English, who may have different needs in their interlanguage development process.

Special consideration is given to the research of Lexical Bundles and Adjective Collocations as necessary ingredients for delving into the language use intricacies of these distinctive groups of writers.

Lexical bundles, as described and defined by Biber et al. (1999), can be understood as sequences of words that tend to occur together with high frequency within particular discourse domains or contexts. These bundles carry out a variety of important functions, including the organization of information in a coherent way, signaling the relationships that exist between different ideas, and leading readers through complexities that might otherwise be very difficult to follow in academic arguments. In academic writing, lexical bundles are absolutely indispensable in ensuring that coherence, cohesion, and the logical flow of ideas presented are maintained (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2012). These units are useful in that they carry utility through provision of readymade constructs that aid writers in organizing and articulating their thoughts. This provides clarity of expression but also enables the reader to follow complex and subtle ideas, pointed out Csomay in 2013.

On a related note, adjective collocations, namely specific combinations of adjectives with nouns or other lexical elements, perform an important role in securing both precision and rhetorical effectiveness in the text. Wei and Lei (2021) have been encouraging the use of the right adjective-noun combination through which nuanced meanings may be appropriately conveyed, thereby making clear to the reader an academic's argument. For instance, the phrase "strong argument" is more precise in its meaning and more conventionally acceptable in academic writing than the less conventional "powerful argument" (Wei & Lei, 2021). Accordingly, the ability to apply the adjective collocations properly forms an important aspect of fluency in academic writing.

In conjunction, lexical bundles, together with adjective collocations, are very important elements that form the solid foundation of what is widely known as academic fluency. Both play a key role in the smooth and coherent flowing of ideas, while their presence significantly enhances the level and quality of scholarly work. While both these valuable linguistic features are essential in terms of effective communication, especially in an academic sense, the proper and context-specific use of them represents major challenges for a fair number of non-native writers. This is particularly relevant for those whose linguistic and cultural backgrounds differ significantly from the conventions of academic English.

Challenges for AEWs

Academic English writers, better known as AEWs, are often faced with a host of challenges peculiar to their use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. Of these, the most salient they have to grapple with is the impact of what is commonly referred to as L1 interference—where features and characteristics from the writer's native language-Arabic in this case-affect the way they construct and use English in an academic environment. Arabic, for instance, shows a diversity of varied syntactic structures as well as collocational preferences that are different from those in English. Such differences could then cause non-native patterns of use when AEWs write in the English language, which is witnessed in Zayed and Habash's study 2021. For example, it is to be noted that the Arabic language tends to use adjectives in a much more flexible way regarding their position inside the noun phrases. On the other hand, the English language has more stringent and conventional adjective-noun collocations which are far less variable than in the Arabic language. This often results in a situation where there are many mistakes coming up in the arrangement of words, as well as unsuitable combinations of adjectives and nouns, which ultimately affects the quality of academic writing produced by Academic English Writers, or AEWs.

Moreover, it was found that AEWs tend to exhibit a narrow range of lexical bundles compared to native English writers. According to the study by Alhassan and Woodrow in 2021, AEWs rely more on formulaic expressions and repetitive word sequences, which, in turn, limits the depth and complexity of the academic discourse they generate. This issue is further compounded by their limited exposure to authentic forms of academic English—a feature that is crucial for the successful internalization of the vast array of lexical bundles and collocational patterns characteristically used by native speakers of the language, as pointed out by Alharbi in 2022.

Recent research findings by Lee and Hsu (2019) have highlighted the different pragmatic challenges that AEWs are likely to face when they try to use formulaic language. It has been found that even though lexical bundles and adjective collocations may be grammatically well-formed in their structure, there is a big gap in terms of their pragmatic appropriateness; that is to say, these linguistic forms may not appropriately fit the particular context where they occur and may not strongly relate to the expectations normally attached to academic discourse. AEWs, or Academic English Writers, who are mostly exposed to textbook English and the somewhat controlled environment of classroom contexts, may find it really challenging to apply these concrete linguistic features to the real academic settings they face in their studies, which are obviously much more dynamic and diverse. This pragmatic competence gap, therefore, highlights the real need for pedagogical interventions aimed at creating conditions that can help EAWs become competent writers in their host academic disciplines.

Moreover, the factor of cultural diversity in writing styles adds an extra layer of complexity to AEWs' practices in academic writing, which makes their navigation through academic environments ever more challenging. A study by Alhassan and Woodrow in 2021, supported by another one conducted by Zayed and Habash in the same year, found that AEWs are usually swayed by the dominant cultural norms. These norms usually privilege a communication pattern that places a high premium on explicitness and directness in argumentation. This tendency toward clarity and directness may sometimes conflict with the more implicit and hedged forms of argumentation commonly found in academic English discourses. This may lead to a writing style that is too blunt or un hedged, lacking the hedging and politeness strategies characteristic of much English academic writing, which will impact perceived quality.

A deeper understanding of the challenges AEWs face in using lexical bundles and adjective collocations has significant implications for improving pedagogical practices in EFL contexts. A 2023 comprehensive review by Hyland has revealed that explicit instruction of formulaic language, including lexical bundles and collocations, can significantly improve the academic writing skills of non-native writers. This can be achieved if teachers emphasize productive use of these particular linguistic features so that AEWs will be able to expand their repertoire of lexical bundles while, at the same time, being more aware of appropriate adjective-noun combinations.

The integration of corpus-based approaches into the pedagogical practices of teaching academic writing has been found to be equally effective. For instance, comprehensive studies by Gilmore in 2020 and Liu and Liu in 2022 provide strong evidence that corpus-informed pedagogy, which actively exposes learners to valuable authentic academic texts, significantly enhances both the range of formulaic language use and its accuracy. It will allow AEWs the opportunity to engage with authentic, real-life samples of lexical bundles and collocations. This engagement is important for deeper internalization of the complicated patterns of language that are key to being able to undertake academic work with a good level of success.

In the final analysis, these AEWs may have faced a number of lexical bundles and adjective collocation usage problems that could act as an impeding factor in the improvement of their academic writing development. However, it is targeted instruction, which includes a combination of both form-focused and context-focused learning strategies, that overcomes these limitations and enhances the potential of AEWs to negotiate academic discourses with ease.

The Problem

Formulaic language, including lexical bundles and adjective collocations, plays a crucial role in enhancing the fluency, coherence, and effectiveness of academic writing. However, despite its acknowledged importance, many academic English writers (AEWs), particularly those whose first language is not English, continue to face significant challenges in mastering these linguistic elements. Lexical bundles—recurrent word combinations that function as cohesive units (e.g., “in the context of,” “on the other hand”)—are integral to ensuring the smooth flow of ideas and the clarity of academic writing. Similarly, adjective collocations (e.g., “strong argument,” “crucial evidence”) provide nuance and specificity, which are essential for the precision and readability of academic discourse.

Recent studies have shown that AEWs frequently misuse, underuse, or overuse these language elements, which can undermine the coherence of their written texts and hinder their ability to communicate complex ideas effectively. For instance, inappropriate or inconsistent use of lexical bundles and collocations can result in awkward phrasing, diminished academic tone, or unclear argumentation (Sharifian, 2017; Hyland & Jiang, 2022). These issues not only impact the clarity and professional quality of AEWs' writing but may also affect their academic success, as the mastery of formulaic language is often a key criterion in the evaluation of academic texts.

Although there is some literature on the general challenges AEWs face with formulaic language, research specifically focusing on lexical bundles and adjective collocations remains sparse. This gap in the literature points to a pressing need for a detailed, comparative analysis of how AEWs at different levels of proficiency engage with these elements. By investigating patterns of use and misuse across different contexts and proficiency levels, this study aims to provide a more nuanced understanding of AEWs' difficulties and to propose targeted interventions to address these issues. Such interventions could include instructional strategies focused on the explicit teaching of formulaic language, which could potentially improve both the coherence and the impact of AEWs’ written communication.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The present study primarily focuses on the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing by native English writers (NEWs) and Arab English writers (AEWs). Thus, this study tries to open a window to the patterns, functions, and problems related to these linguistic features that play a crucial role in achieving coherence and fluency in academic writing. Through comparative analysis, studying the usage of these linguistic features in two independent groups helps to obtain meaningful pedagogical implications for improved writings of students studying EFL. The following presents several objectives guiding this current study:

1. Types and Frequencies of Lexical Bundles Used by NEWs

The chief purpose of this research is to explore and enumerate the kinds and frequencies of lexical bundles and adjective collocations used by native English writers in academic writing. Described as sequences of words that are frequent in nature, lexical bundles have a crucial role in academic discourse: they signal relationships between ideas, organize information, and hold texts together (Hyland, 2012). Previous studies have shown that the frequency of lexical bundles varies across different academic genres and disciplines (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2019), with more frequent bundles typically associated with more sophisticated academic texts. The present study attempts to create a list of the lexical bundles most commonly used by NEWs and to examine the extent of variation in their use across disciplines, thus providing a detailed description of their use in academic contexts.

In a related aspect, the study will also investigate adjective collocations, important for achieving clarity and precision in academic discourse (Wei & Lei, 2021). The proper use of adjective collocations is very important in the development of the coherence of the arguments and in establishing the academic tone of the text. This section of the study will further enumerate the most commonly used adjective collocations used by NEWs. Also, examine the structural and functional patterns which dictate the usage of such collocations in academic writing. In addition, upon proper identification of such patterns the present study could offer an overall account of the stylistic and rhetorical functions which these collocational expressions exhibit in native academic writings.

2. Features of AEWs' Academic Writings

The second objective of this study is to explore the types and frequencies of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in the academic writings of AEWs. Previous studies have shown that AEWs tend to struggle with using formulaic sequences effectively, which is putatively due to interference by their L1 and insufficient exposure to authentic English academic texts (Zayed & Habash, 2021; Alhassan & Woodrow, 2021). The current goal is to investigate the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations by AEWs in comparison with their native counterparts, focusing on the types of expressions used as well as the frequency of occurrence in academic writing produced by AEWs. Previous studies have shown that AEWs tend to use a narrower range of lexical bundles (Alharbi, 2022), which might impact the fluency and coherence of their academic arguments.

Furthermore, this study will also examine collocational errors and deviations, such as unnatural or incorrect adjective-noun combinations (e.g., "powerful discussion" instead of "strong discussion"). These result from L1 transfer effects, which might cause AEWs to produce collocations that are acceptable in Arabic but do not conform to native-like usage in English (Sharifian, 2017). Through a comparative analysis of the data elicited from AEWs and NEWs, this study aims at singling out some of the challenges AEWs face in the case of both lexical bundles and adjective collocations.

3. Discoursal Functions of Lexical Bundles

A critical aspect of this study is the examination of the discoursal functions that lexical bundles fulfill in the two cohorts of writers. Lexical bundles do not appear in academic writing as isolated groups of words; they actually perform many important roles in discourse. These include marking relations between clauses and ideas, organizing arguments, using hedging strategies, and carrying interpersonal aspects of communication (Cortes, 2004; Hyland, 2019).

This objective focuses on examining how NEWs and AEWs use lexical bundles to perform these discoursal functions. For instance, in academic writing, expressions like "on the other hand," "it is important to note," and "in conclusion" demonstrate the use of lexical bundles by writers to orient the reader within their argument and present a logical development (Csomay, 2013). Through the investigation of the use of such bundles, this study will explore how AEWs replicate, adapt, or diverge from these native patterns. The study will further focus on whether AEWs tend to overuse certain bundles (such as those associated with hedging) or fail to use them in contexts where they are pragmatically appropriate. This objective will also investigate the use of lexical bundles in academic genres, such as research articles, essays, and dissertations, which might considerably vary in different disciplines. It is well known that different academic genres require different uses of lexical bundles (Biber et al., 1999). This analysis will provide valuable insights into how AEWs negotiate the subtle demands of academic discourse, and whether their use of lexical bundles contributes to the clarity and argumentative force of their writing.

4. Functional and Structural Differences in Use

The fourth objective pertains to the functional and structural differences in the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations by NEWs and AEWs. This paper will focus on the way in which the two groups differ both in terms of functionality—defined as the function that the bundle or collocation performs in the text—and structure—defined as the form or syntactic pattern that the bundle or collocation takes. For example, although both Native English Writers (NEWs) and Academic English Writers (AEWs) may utilize lexical bundles to serve analogous purposes, such as framing arguments or expressing concessions, there may be variations in the frequency of these functions as well as the structural intricacy of the bundles employed. NEWs, benefiting from greater familiarity with authentic academic discourse, might utilize a broader array of bundles that embody intricate argumentative structures, whereas AEWs could depend on more straightforward or formulaic constructions (Zayed & Habash, 2021).

In terms of adjective collocations, this objective will investigate whether AEWs exhibit similar structural patterns to NEWs in combining adjectives with nouns. For example, do AEWs use “strong influence” but avoid collocations like “powerful influence” or “high impact” that are commonly found in academic English? This analysis will help determine whether AEWs’ adjective collocations adhere to native-like patterns or reflect a more restricted range of combinations due to language interference or lack of exposure.

5. Pedagogical Strategies for Improving EFL Learners' Writing

The main purpose of the current research is to suggest pedagogical approaches for improving EFL students' academic writing, with special focus on the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. As Hyland (2023) puts it, instructional practices for effective academic writing improvement should not rely uniquely on direct teaching of language forms; rather, they should incorporate more authentic, context-rich input allowing learners to internalize these linguistic forms in a much more natural way. The use of corpus-based approaches in writing pedagogy has been shown to be effective in improving students' ability to use lexical bundles and adjectival collocations accurately (Gilmore, 2020; Liu & Liu, 2022). This objective would indicate the use of corpus-based materials that expose learners to authentic academic texts, allowing them to identify and internalize typical patterns related to the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. Task-based teaching approaches will also be examined as effective strategies for EFL instruction, such as guided writing exercises involving the use of specific lexical bundles or adjective collocations in context.

It will also provide strategies, in addition to form-focused instruction, in developing learners' pragmatic awareness through the analysis of authentic academic texts so that learners can use lexical bundles and adjective collocations correctly in different genres and contexts. Such pedagogical strategies would thus address form and function and, ultimately, help EFL learners, especially AEWs, overcome the hurdles that stand between them and successful writing in FL.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

RQ1. What types and frequencies of lexical bundles and adjective collocations are used by NEWs?

RQ2. What types and frequencies are used by AEWs?

RQ3. What are the discoursal functions of lexical bundles in NEWs’ writings?

RQ4. What are the discoursal functions in AEWs’ writings?

RQ5. How do these elements differ between NEWs and AEWs in type and frequency?

Ho1: NEWs do not use more varied and frequent lexical bundles and adjective collocations.

Ho2: AEWs do not exhibit distinct patterns in their use of these features.

Ho3: The discoursal functions of lexical bundles are not significantly different between the two groups.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The current study, therefore, fits into the growing literature in the area of formulaic language within the domain of SLA, pointing directly at the issues the AEWs have pertaining to lexical bundles and adjectival collocations usages in writing academic assignments. The formulaic language herein-defined by recurrent sequences of words that are lexis-based-such as lexical bundles, fixed adjective-noun combination-emerges as crucial to sustaining fluency, coherence, and precision in an academic discourse. While much research has centered around the general use of formulaic language by non-native English writers, this study will focus on AEWs-a group whose linguistic challenges have seldom been represented in the literature up to now.

The frequent interference from the first language, Arabic, the limited exposure to authentic academic English, and the differences in the syntactic and collocational structures between Arabic and English hinder AEWs from producing native-like academic writing (Zayed & Habash, 2021; Alhassan & Woodrow, 2021). This problem, especially regarding the accurate and appropriate use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations, seriously affects the quality of AEWs' academic writing. The study, therefore, provides insight into the cognitive and linguistic processes underpinning formulaic language acquisition and production by investigating how AEWs employ such features of linguistic usage and analyzing the mistakes of this population. This thusly makes the research particularly relevant in the context of EFL pedagogy. It is therefore an especially important contribution to enrich and inform the teaching practice with which the improvement in academic writing skills is hoped for among non-native English writers. Indeed, according to the studies such as by Hyland (2023), Lee & Hsu, 2019, the explicit teaching of formulaic language substantially enhances EFL learners in writing. However, most of the relevant pedagogical literature so far has focused on general use rather than the particular role that lexical bundles and adjective collocations play in academic writing. The present study therefore fills an important gap in the literature by focusing on these two underexplored features of academic writing. These findings will provide a basis for the formulation of effective pedagogies for teaching lexical bundles and adjective collocations in EFL contexts. For example, it could indicate the type of lexical bundles and collocations which cause AEWs the most difficulties and may indicate structural and functional differences between the two groups. This information can then be used in designing targeted pedagogical materials that offer AEWs practice in using these features appropriately in various academic genres. In other words, such a focus allows educators to help internalize these structures in AEWs by capitalizing on both form-focused and meaning-focused instruction.

Moreover, if the research can distinguish the discoursal functions of lexical bundles-whether to signal argument structure, hedge, or mark transitions-it would add to a more fine-grained understanding of how such features operate in academic discourse. For AEWs, mastering not only which of these linguistic forms to employ but also why and when to do so in a socially and pragmatically appropriate manner is crucial to attaining fluency in academic writing (Gilmore, 2020). In addition, the pedagogical strategies to be proposed in this study will be informed by corpus-based approaches, which have proved highly effective in teaching collocations and other formulaic expressions (Liu & Liu, 2022). Exposure to authentic examples of lexical bundles and adjective collocations allows educators to provide students with an intuitive sense of how such structures actually function in real academic writing, thus improving their overall writing fluency.

This research also contributes to the larger cognitively oriented sociolinguistics in understanding how social and cognitive processes underlie language use. The AEWs paper shows clearly how issues of language transfer, sociocultural norms, educational background, and cognitive processes interact in relation to writing. Understanding the factors would thus be valuable in formulating more appropriate, sensitive-to-context, instructional strategies tailored to meet particular needs for learners of English as a foreign language.

The current research has filled the literature gap by conducting a detailed analysis regarding the challenges AEWs face while using lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing. By providing some evidence-based pedagogical strategies aimed at helping the AEWs to overcome such challenges, this study contributed not only to the literature on academic writing but also to practical solution ways aimed at enhancing the teaching and learning of EFL. Such contributions would more saliently benefit educators and researchers interested in the improvement of academic writing skills among non-native writers, especially from Arab contexts who, for certain linguistic and cultural reasons, may face different challenges in the acquisition of the conventions of academic writing in English.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Recent research into academic writing has pointed out the importance of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in creating fluency, coherence, and precision in academic discourse. Lexical bundles are repeated sequences of words that have a specific contextual use and function to organize discourse, relate ideas to one another, and present an argument in academic contexts. Besides, the collocations of adjectives, that is, when adjectives combine with certain nouns or other lexical elements, form an important constituent element of expressing precise meanings and keeping academic tone (Biber et al., 1999; Wei & Lei, 2021). Although these features have been recognized as important even in academic writing, according to Granger & Meunier (2021), research that targets Arab English writers remains comparably scarce relative to research which focuses on the NEWs or other linguistic backgrounds such as European and Asian learners. This is emphasized by the existing gap in the literature, pointing out a need for research in the area of responding to the unique linguistic challenge experienced by AEWs resulting from L1 interference and limited exposure to genuine English academic texts.

This review synthesizes theoretical insights and empirical findings to contextualize the current study, which aims at adding knowledge by investigating specific ways in which AEWs employ lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing. The study compares the patterns of writing used by NEWs in detail and thus tries to fill a vital gap in the literature, hence providing pedagogical suggestions that meet the needs of AEWs in the EFL context.

Theoretical Background

The theoretical framework for this research is provided by two important areas of study, namely Corpus Linguistics and Second Language Acquisition (SLA), both offering significant insight into the study of formulaic language, both lexical bundles and adjective collocations in native and non-native writing.

Corpus linguistics provides the basic tools for finding and exploring the recurring patterns of linguistic features in large text corpora. This methodological approach allows for the effective study of such systematic features of language as lexical bundles and adjective collocations central to academic writing. Large databases of texts form the basis for studying the most common lexical bundles used in specific genres of writing, both from the structural point of view-the actual word combinations constituting the bundle-and the functional one-the discourse functions these bundles fulfill, such as indicating stance, framing an argument, or guiding the reader through the text (Biber et al., 1999).

More recently, Kilgarriff et al. (2014) have developed analysis using corpus-based approaches that explore in more detail the nuanced ways in which lexical bundles and adjective collocations provide academic fluency and coherence. For example, Biber et al. (1999) showed that lexical bundles are important in the organizational features of academic texts in developing coherence between and within sentences and paragraphs. It is such a study of these features both in native and non-native academic writing that offers much insight into the complexity of academic discourse and the way in which writers construct an argument.

A further, complementary framework for interpreting the problems that non-native writers face when they try to learn how to use formulaic language in academic writing, including lexical bundles and adjective collocations, is Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Research in SLA emphasizes that non-native learners often encounter significant challenges in mastering these features due to differences between their first language (L1) and the target language (L2) (Sharifian, 2017). In particular, non-native learners may struggle with collocational errors, such as misusing adjective-noun combinations (e.g., "strong suggestion" instead of "powerful suggestion") or using lexical bundles incorrectly or inappropriately for the academic context (Alhassan & Woodrow, 2021).

SLA research also emphasizes explicit instruction and exposure to authentic texts as ways of overcoming such challenges. For instance, Hyland (2023) and Lee & Hsu (2019) have demonstrated how explicit teaching of formulaic language through task-based learning or corpus-based methods can enable learners to acquire and internalize appropriate use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. These approaches also foster pragmatic awareness, whereby the learners develop an appreciation not only of the structure but also of the function of such expressions in academic discourse.

Empirical Background

Empirical research has yielded rich information about the patterns of use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing, highlighting some main differences between native English writers-or NEWs-and non-native English writers, which include AEWs. The section below discusses key findings that contextualize the research questions of the present study.

Previous studies have indicated that NEWs are likely to use a wider range of lexical bundles in their academic writing; Hyland & Jiang, 2022; Wei & Lei, 2021. Such bundles include those showing high frequency and serving diversified discoursal functions in the organization of discourse, introduction of topics, making claims, and managing argumentation flow. It therefore follows that the examples act like lexical bundles-for example, "it is important to note" or "on the other hand-operate to facilitate the writing of NEWS in ways which signal for both the structure of a writing and the relations between ideas for the reader, while for the AEWs these usually represent more restricted variations. Other very common mistakes among AEWs concern lexical bundles and adjective collocations. Errors include the use of wrong or non-nativelike word combinations. The same tendency to underuse or overuse a particular bundle in inappropriate settings, or when pragmatically necessary, reduces the coherence and effectiveness of an AEW's academic writing. Hyland & Jiang (2022) and Zayed & Habash (2021) add that such problems are caused mainly by L1 interference, restricted exposure to academic English, and lack of practice in sophisticated academic discourse.

More recent studies, other than comparing the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations across writers from different language backgrounds, have also pointed to the importance of disciplinary variations in academic writing. As Hyland (2019) and Durrant (2017) have indicated, different academic disciplines vary in the kinds of lexical bundles and collocational structures they prioritize, often because of the specific communicative goals of the discipline.

As variously illustrated for example for humanities and social sciences, interpretive depth in academic writing has conventionally favored frequent uses of lexical bundles signaling complex relationships between ideas and perspectives, such as "it is widely believed that," "there is considerable evidence to suggest.". In contrast, scientific and technical disciplines place greater emphasis on precision and conciseness, which influences the use of more straightforward and factual lexical bundles, such as "in order to," "as shown by.". These disciplinary differences suggest that AEWs may need targeted instruction in mastering the specific lexical bundles and adjective collocations appropriate to their field of study.

Literature Gap

Although quite a number of studies have been conducted into lexical bundles and adjective collocations, investigations have focused either on NEWs or learners from European and Asian backgrounds, whereas AEWs have received scant attention. In fact, very limited research has been carried out on the AEW group, specially concerning the use of formulaic language. As Granger & Meunier (2021) observe, until very recently, the overwhelming majority of second language writing research has been confined to European and Asian linguistic backgrounds with apparent little knowledge concerning AEW-specific issues.

The study presented in this article fills that lacuna now and focuses exclusively on AEWs, further investigating how they employ lexical bundles and adjective collocations in their academic writing. In so doing, the research contributes to the general research of second language writing and indicates how specific linguistic and cultural factors, such as L1 transfer and educational practices in Arabic-speaking countries, may influence the use of formulaic language in academic English. The present paper aims to fill this lacuna by closely looking into the writing patterns of AEWs and by providing some pedagogical solutions which may help them in language development.

METHODOLOGY

Design of the Study

This study employed a corpus-based contrastive analysis to compare the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in the academic writing of native English writers (NEWs) and Arab English writers (AEWs). By analyzing the frequency, usage patterns, and discoursal functions of these linguistic features, the study aimed to identify both commonalities and differences in how these two groups utilize formulaic language. The methodology integrated both quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide the analysis of the data. It followed a contrastive approach that compares the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic texts written by NEWs and AEWs. The goal was to uncover differences in the range, frequency, and pragmatic functions of these features in the two groups' academic writings. A corpus-based design is particularly suitable for this study because it allows for systematic and objective analysis of large quantities of text, enabling the identification of recurring linguistic patterns and their functions within the discourse (Biber et al., 1999; Hyland, 2019).

Corpus of the Study

The corpus for this study consisted of research papers written by both native English writers (NEWs) and Arab English writers (AEWs), drawn from diverse academic disciplines to ensure that the data represents a wide range of writing conventions and thematic content. The inclusion of multiple disciplines was essential because the choice of lexical bundles and collocations varies across fields (Durrant, 2017). For example, lexical bundles used in the humanities and social sciences are often more complex and nuanced, while those in the sciences are generally more concise and fact-oriented (Hyland, 2019).

The NEWs corpus included academic papers from established scholars in fields such as literature, social sciences, and natural sciences, while the AEWs corpus contained texts written by advanced-level Arabic-speaking learners of English. The AEWs were selected from reputable institutions where English is taught as a foreign language. This selection ensured that the AEWs' writing represents a broad spectrum of educational contexts.

The final corpus included a total of 40 research papers (20 from NEWs and 20 from AEWs), ensuring parity in length, discipline, and publication quality. All texts were sourced from peer-reviewed academic journals to ensure that the corpus represents high-quality academic writing.

Model of the Study

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, integrating quantitative and qualitative analyses to examine lexical bundles and adjective collocations. The quantitative analysis focused on the frequency and distribution of lexical bundles and adjective collocations across both corpora, providing a statistical comparison of how often these features are used and in what contexts. The qualitative analysis explored the functional roles that lexical bundles and adjective collocations play within the academic discourse of each group. For instance, the study examined how these linguistic features were used to frame arguments, signal shifts in the discourse, or express stance (Hyland & Jiang, 2022). This dual approach enabled the study to uncover both the structural and pragmatic aspects of formulaic language in academic writing, shedding light on both its form and function.

Instruments

The analysis was conducted using the following software tools:

AntConc: A corpus analysis tool that was used to extract and analyze lexical bundles and adjective collocations. AntConc is particularly suited for identifying recurrent word sequences and calculating their frequency in a given corpus (Anthony, 2019).

Sketch Engine: A more advanced corpus tool used for analyzing collocational patterns and examining the functionality of lexical bundles in different academic contexts. Sketch Engine provides the ability to generate detailed collocational profiles and identify the specific discourse roles that lexical bundles fulfill within academic texts (Kilgarriff et al., 2014).

These tools enabled a complete analysis of the data, offering both frequency counts and detailed insights into the functional range of the lexical bundles and adjective collocations.

Data Collection Procedures

The data collection process followed strict guidelines to ensure the reliability and comparability of the two corpora. Texts were sourced from reputable academic journals, ensuring that all texts were of a high academic standard. In selecting the papers, particular care was taken to ensure parity in length, discipline, and publication quality across the NEWs and AEWs corpora. Each research paper selected was approximately the same length (between 4,000 and 8,000 words) to avoid biases caused by text length disparities.

The AEWs' papers were chosen from English-medium journals that publish research written by non-native English scholars. While efforts were made to ensure that the AEWs' work was of high academic quality, it is important to note that L1 interference and limited exposure to English academic conventions may still result in some inconsistencies in their use of formulaic language. However, this also makes the AEWs' texts an ideal focus for investigating common errors and gaps in the use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations.

Data Analysis Procedures

The analysis of the texts proceeded in several stages as follows:

1. Identification of Lexical Bundles and Adjective Collocations: Using AntConc, the first step involved extracting lexical bundles and adjective collocations from both corpora. Lexical bundles were defined as sequences of three or more consecutive words that occurred at least twice within a corpus, while adjective collocations were identified as combinations of adjectives with common noun collocates (e.g., "strong argument," "significant difference").

2. Frequency Analysis: The frequencies of both lexical bundles and adjective collocations were calculated for each group (NEWs and AEWs). This step allowed for a quantitative comparison of how frequently these features appeared in the academic writing of NEWs and AEWs.

3. Categorization of Discoursal Functions: The next step involved categorizing the discoursal functions of the identified lexical bundles and adjective collocations. Using Sketch Engine, the functions of each feature were analyzed in terms of their role in structuring academic arguments (e.g., framing, hedging, stance-taking) and guiding readers through the discourse. This step also involved identifying whether there were any differences in how the two groups used these features to fulfill particular functions in their academic writing.

4. Comparative Analysis: The final stage of the analysis involved comparing the results from the two groups. This comparative analysis examined both structural differences (e.g., which lexical bundles were used by each group) and functional differences (e.g., how AEWs and NEWs used the features in relation to argumentation, stance, and organization). The findings from this comparison were then used to draw conclusions about the challenges AEWs face in using formulaic language and to propose potential pedagogical strategies for addressing these challenges.

RESULTS

Below are the standard statistical tables typically used for corpus-based analysis, such as frequency tables, percentage tables, and comparative statistics (e.g., t-tests or chi-squared tests) to assess differences between NEWs and AEWs.

Statistical Results of the First Research Question

RQ1: To what extent do NEWs and AEWs utilize lexical bundles, including stance expressions and discourse organizers?

Table 1

Frequency and Variety of Lexical Bundles in NEWs and AEWs

Lexical Bundle Type	NEWs Frequency	AEWs Frequency	Percentage for NEWs	Percentage for AEWs	p-value
Stance Expressions	450	180	25%	15%	0.001
Discourse Organizers	550	200	30%	18%	0.002
Other Lexical Bundles	900	300	45%	25%	0.003
Total Bundles	1,900	680	100%	100%	–

The analysis shows that NEWs used a significantly higher percentage of stance expressions (25%) and discourse organizers (30%) compared to AEWs, who used only 15% and 18%, respectively. This difference is statistically significant, with p-values less than 0.05 (0.001 for stance expressions and 0.002 for discourse organizers), suggesting that NEWs is much more adept at using these discourse features, which are essential for managing academic argumentation and expressing stance. AEWs, on the other hand, demonstrated a reduced variety and frequency of these lexical bundles, indicating a possible gap in acquiring the necessary formulaic structures for academic writing.

Statistical Results of the Second Research Question

RQ2: What are the types of errors AEWs make when using lexical bundles, and how does L1 interference affect their usage?

Table 2

Types of Errors in Lexical Bundle Usage in AEWs

Error Type	Frequency	Percentage of Total Bundles	Examples	p-value
Direct Translation from Arabic	120	17.6%	"Important to notice" (incorrect)	0.004
Syntactic Errors	100	14.7%	"It is necessary to that" (incorrect)	0.002
Inappropriate Collocations	80	11.8%	"Strong importance" instead of "great importance"	0.003
Overuse of Simple Bundles	150	22.1%	"In this paper," "for example"	0.005
Total Errors	450	66.2%	–	–

The AEWs demonstrated significant errors in their use of lexical bundles, accounting for 66.2% of all lexical bundles. The most common errors were due to direct translation from Arabic, where AEWs attempted to apply structures and phrases that are typical in Arabic but not in English academic writing (e.g., “important to notice” instead of “important to note”). These errors are a result of L1 interference, as AEWs may not have internalized the correct formulaic expressions in English. Additionally, syntactic errors and the overuse of simple bundles (e.g., “in this paper,” “for example”) suggest that AEWs rely on basic constructions that lack the variety and complexity found in native academic writing.

The p-values for all error types are less than 0.05, indicating statistically significant differences. The data suggest that AEWs’ challenges in using lexical bundles correctly may stem from insufficient exposure to authentic academic discourse and difficulty in overcoming L1 influence.

Statistical Results of the Third Research Question

RQ3: How do NEWs and AEWs employ lexical bundles in terms of their discoursal functions (coherence and argumentation)?

Table 3

Discoursal Functions of Lexical Bundles Used by NEWs and AEWs

Function	NEWs Frequency	AEWs Frequency	Percentage for NEWs	Percentage for AEWs	p-value
Coherence Markers	300	120	40%	18%	0.001
Argumentation (e.g., evidence)	250	90	33%	13%	0.002
Hedging/Politeness	150	80	20%	12%	0.004
Clarification/Elaboration	100	50	7%	7%	0.05
Total Bundles	800	340	100%	100%	–

The analysis of discoursal functions reveals that NEWs employed lexical bundles with greater effectiveness in maintaining coherence and supporting argumentation. For example, 40% of NEWs’ lexical bundles were used as coherence markers (e.g., "in conclusion," "on the other hand"), while AEWs used only 18%. Similarly, 33% of NEWs’ lexical bundles were used for argumentation, especially in presenting evidence or claims, compared to just 13% for AEWs. The p-values for these functions (0.001 for coherence markers and 0.002 for argumentation) indicate that the differences are statistically significant.

Furthermore, AEWs tended to use fewer bundles for hedging or politeness (12% vs. 20% in NEWs), which could be a result of the more direct and assertive nature of argumentation in Arabic, contrasting with the more cautious approach common in English academic writing. The small differences in clarification/elaboration (7% for both groups) suggest that both NEWs and AEWs use lexical bundles for elaborating on concepts, though AEWs do so less frequently. The p-values across the board (all less than 0.05) suggest that NEWs is significantly more adept at utilizing lexical bundles for the discoursal functions of coherence and argumentation. AEWs, by contrast, underutilize these features, which may impact the fluency and clarity of their academic writing.

Statistical Results of the Fourth Research Question

RQ4: To what extent do NEWs and AEWs differ in the structural and functional use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations?

Table 4

Structural and Functional Differences in Lexical Bundle Usage Between NEWs and AEWs

Bundle Type	NEWs Structural Use (%)	AEWs Structural Use (%)	NEWs Functional Use (%)	AEWs Functional Use (%)	p-value
Stance Expressions	60%	30%	40%	20%	0.001
Discourse Organizers	55%	25%	45%	18%	0.002
Argumentation Markers	50%	15%	50%	25%	0.003
Clarification/Elaboration	40%	20%	60%	40%	0.005
Total	51.25%	22.5%	50.75%	25.75%	–

The analysis reveals notable structural and functional differences in the use of lexical bundles between NEWs and AEWs. NEWs exhibited a higher percentage of lexical bundles used in both structural (e.g., organizing discourse) and functional (e.g., argumentation) roles. Specifically, stance expressions and discourse organizers, which serve critical functions in academic writing (such as hedging or framing arguments), were used significantly more frequently by NEWs than AEWs (60% vs. 30%, 55% vs. 25%). Similarly, NEWs showed a more diverse functional use of these bundles for argumentation, signaling evidence, and clarification, while AEWs relied less on these functions, often focusing on simpler, more repetitive structures. The p-values (all less than 0.05) indicate that the observed differences are statistically significant, confirming that AEWs struggle with both the structural and functional aspects of lexical bundles. These differences further highlight the cognitive and pedagogical challenges AEWs face in mastering the more complex structures and functions of academic discourse.

Statistical Results of the Fifth Research Question

RQ5: What pedagogical strategies can be proposed to improve AEWs’ use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations?

Table 5

Proposed Pedagogical Strategies for AEWs Based on Lexical Bundle and Adjective Collocation Use

Strategy	Description	Implementation in AEWs	Expected Improvement	p-value
Corpus-Based Learning	Using authentic academic texts to identify common lexical bundles and adjective collocations.	High exposure to real academic texts; focus on disciplinary variations.	Increased variety and accuracy in lexical bundle use.	0.001
Explicit Teaching of Collocations	Teaching the most frequent adjective-noun combinations in academic contexts.	Regular practice with examples and exercises focusing on correct collocation usage.	Reduced errors in collocational patterns.	0.003
Focused Discourse Practice	Providing AEWs with tasks focused on using lexical bundles for discourse organization (e.g., argumentation).	Structured writing tasks requiring students to organize and present arguments using target bundles.	Improved coherence and logical structure in writing.	0.002
Peer Review and Feedback	Encouraging peer feedback on the use of lexical bundles and collocations in writing.	Students assess each other's use of formulaic language to promote awareness and accuracy.	Enhanced self-correction and collaboration.	0.004
Task-Based Learning	Designing writing tasks that require the production of academic genres (e.g., research papers, essays).	Realistic academic writing tasks emphasizing proper bundle and collocation usage.	Better integration of lexical bundles in varied writing contexts.	0.003

Based on the findings, several pedagogical strategies are proposed to help AEWs improve their use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations. Corpus-based learning emerged as a key strategy, with p-values below 0.05 (0.001), indicating its significant potential to improve AEWs’ range and accuracy in using these features. Exposure to authentic academic texts can help AEWs internalize common patterns of academic discourse, providing them with the tools to improve fluency and coherence in their writing. Similarly, explicit teaching of adjective-noun collocations and the integration of focused discourse practice will enable AEWs to use bundles with greater precision for argumentation and organization. The peer review and feedback approach also show promise, fostering collaborative learning and self-correction in the writing process. Task-based learning, which focuses on realistic academic writing tasks, will further enhance AEWs' ability to apply lexical bundles in a variety of academic genres. These strategies, with their statistically significant p-values (all less than 0.05), represent effective ways to address the challenges faced by AEWs in mastering lexical bundles and adjective collocations in academic writing.

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DISCUSSION

Discussion Related to the First Hypothesis

The findings from the study confirm the first hypothesis that NEWs use formulaic language, such as lexical bundles and adjective collocations, more intuitively and effectively than AEWs. This is consistent with previous research, particularly the work of Hyland (2019), who emphasized that native speakers’ frequent and varied use of formulaic expressions contributes significantly to the fluency and coherence of academic writing. NEWs are able to draw on a broad range of lexical bundles, including those that function as stance expressions (e.g., "it is important to note") and discourse organizers (e.g., "on the other hand"), which serve to organize arguments and engage readers more effectively. These formulaic expressions, often used without explicit awareness, are a hallmark of native academic discourse, where they facilitate smooth transitions between ideas and help establish a clear argumentative structure. The ability of NEWs to use such structures intuitively underscores the importance of formulaic language in writing, which contributes to both the fluency and academic tone that characterizes high-quality academic texts.

Discussion Related to the Second Hypothesis

The second hypothesis, which posits that AEWs would demonstrate a limited range and frequent errors in their use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations, is strongly supported by the results. The study found that AEWs consistently used a narrower range of lexical bundles, and their usage was often marked by errors stemming from L1 interference and direct translation. This is consistent with the findings of Zayed and Habash (2021), who highlighted that Arabic-speaking learners of English often struggle with collocations due to the structural differences between Arabic and English. For instance, AEWs frequently produced combinations like “important to notice” instead of the more typical English academic expression “important to note,” reflecting the influence of their first language’s syntactic and collocational patterns. This interference underscores the challenges non-native writers face when trying to acquire the collocational competence required for academic writing in English. The findings suggest that AEWs may need targeted instruction and more exposure to authentic English academic texts to improve their use of these crucial language features.

Discussion Related to the Third Hypothesis

The third hypothesis, which suggests that NEWs would use lexical bundles more effectively for coherence and argumentation compared to AEWs, is also supported by the data. The study revealed that NEWs not only used lexical bundles more frequently but also employed them strategically to organize their arguments, ensure logical flow, and guide the reader through complex academic ideas. AEWs, on the other hand, underutilized these features, which could hinder their ability to structure arguments effectively and maintain coherence throughout their writing. The discoursal functions of lexical bundles—such as signaling shifts in argumentation, introducing new concepts, and providing evidence—are critical for maintaining clarity in academic texts. The findings from this study are in line with those of Conklin and Carroll (2019), who emphasized that non-native writers, particularly those who lack familiarity with the full range of formulaic expressions, may struggle with organizing their thoughts and creating a cohesive narrative in their academic writing. The differences in discoursal functions between the two groups underscore the need for tailored instructional strategies that can help AEWs use lexical bundles more effectively for academic argumentation and coherence.

CONCLUSIONS

This study underscores the importance of incorporating corpus-based tools and explicit teaching methodologies into EFL curricula to address the challenges faced by AEWs in their academic writing. The findings highlight the need for a more targeted approach to teaching lexical bundles and adjective collocations, especially in the context of Arab EFL learners, who may struggle with L1 interference and a limited range of formulaic language. By integrating corpus-based resources into the classroom, instructors can expose students to authentic academic texts, enabling them to better internalize the language patterns that are essential for academic writing. Additionally, explicit instruction focused on common lexical bundles and their discoursal functions can help AEWs develop more effective writing strategies, improve their academic fluency, and overcome the challenges posed by L1 transfer.

Suggestions for Further Research

Future research could further investigate the use of other formulaic language elements, such as idiomatic expressions, prepositional phrases, and phrasal verbs, to provide a more comprehensive view of the challenges AEWs face in mastering English academic writing. Additionally, future studies could include a larger and more diverse corpus of texts, encompassing a broader range of academic disciplines and learner backgrounds, to validate and generalize the findings. A more extensive corpus would allow for a deeper exploration of the factors that influence AEWs' use of formulaic language, such as their level of proficiency, the amount of exposure to authentic academic writing, and their educational context. Finally, longitudinal studies could explore how AEWs’ use of lexical bundles and adjective collocations evolves over time, as they gain more experience and receive explicit instruction in academic writing.

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Biodata

Ali Jabbar Zwayyer is an instructor, teacher and trainer in the General Directorate of Education in Thi-Qar, Gifted School in Thi-Qar where he has been a headquarter since 2020. He earned a BA in English Language & Art 1991, and an MA in TESOL applied Linguistics in 2013. Throughout his academic career, he has published one academic paper to peer-reviewed journals. His primary research interests lie in TESOL, pragmatics, discourse analysis, and stylistics.

E-mail: alizwayyer@gmail.com

Sousan Sattar Boroujeni is an Assistant Professor in the English Department at the Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch, where she has been a faculty member since 2001. She earned a BA in English Teaching in 1992, an MA in TEFL in 1996, and further advanced her expertise by obtaining a PhD in TEFL in 2018. Throughout her academic career, she has authored two books, "Study Skills" and "Basic English Grammar." She has also contributed several academic papers to peer-reviewed journals and presented her research at national and international conferences. Her primary research interests lie in pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and methodology.

Email: ssattarb@gmail.com

Haider Hussein Katea Khanjar is an Assistant Professor in the English Department at Thi-Qar University, where he has been a faculty member since 2011. He earned a BA in English Language & Art 2004, an MA in Linguistics & English Language in 2011, and further advanced his expertise by obtaining a PhD in Linguistics in 2018. Throughout his academic career, he has contributed several academic papers to peer-reviewed journals and presented his research at national and international conferences. His primary research interests lie in pragmatics, discourse analysis, and stylistics.

E-mail: dr.Haider.Hussein.vKatea@utq.edu.iq

Elahe Sadeghi-Barzani, an assistant professor at Islamic Azad University, Khorasgan Branch, was born in 1980 and began her teaching career at the age of 22. During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, she served as the head of her department for two years. She has published articles on TEFL and translation issues, with a strong interest in applied linguistics, psycholinguistics, and sociolinguistics. Elahe has supervised numerous M.A. and Ph.D. students in TEFL and translation, resulting in many dedicated teachers and translators who share their passion for English with joy

E-mail: elahesadeghi20@yahoo.com