A Corpus-based Investigation of Lexical Bundles in Iranian Advanced Learners’ Discussion of English and Natives

Subject Areas : Applied Linguistics

Ashraf Vaziri ¹ , Hamed Barjesteh ² , Atefeh Nasrollahi Mouziraji ³

1 - PhD Student of TEFL, [e-mail]; Department of English Language and Literature, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran.
2 - Associate Professor, [e-mail]; Department of English Language and Literature, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran.
3 - Assistant Professor in TEFL, the Department of English Language and Literature, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran

Received: 2024-07-15 Accepted : 2024-10-08 Published : 2024-07-28

Keywords: Corpus, Learner Corpora, Lexical Bundles, Speaking Skill,

Abstract :

This study examines the use of four-word lexical bundles in spoken group discussions by Iranian EFL learners (advanced) and native speakers. A corpus of 21 discussions (encompassing academic context) is analyzed to explore the frequency, structure, and function of lexical bundles used by these groups. Biber et al.'s (2004) taxonomies are employed to categorize the extracted bundles based on their structural and functional characteristics. The Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE) serve as reference points for comparisons with native speaker usage. Quantitative analysis (frequency counts and chi-square tests) alongside qualitative content analysis reveal that native speakers utilize lexical bundles more frequently overall. Additionally, they exhibit a preference for discourse organizer bundles (functional category) and noun phrases (structural category). In the academic context, non-native speakers rely more heavily on stance expressions (functional) and verb phrase fragments (structural). These findings hold significant pedagogical implications for EFL instructors, material developers, and learners themselves, paving the way for improved instructional strategies and learning outcomes.

References:

Ädel, A., & Erman, B. (2012). Recurrent word combinations in academic writing by native and non-native speakers of English: A lexical bundles approach. English for specific purposes, 31(2), 81-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2011.08.004
Ahmadi, M., Esfandiari, R., & Zarei, A. A. (2020). A corpus-based study of noun phrase complexity in applied linguistics research article abstracts in two contexts of publication. Iranian Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 9(1), 76-94. https://doi.org/20.1001.1.24763187.2020.9.1.6.3
Anthony, L. (2019). AntConc (Version 3.5.8) [Computer Software]. Tokyo, Japan: Waseda University. https://www.laurenceanthony.net/software
Appel, R. F. (2011). Lexical bundles in university EAP exam writing samples: CAEL test essays [Doctoral dissertation]. Carleton University.
Baroni, M., & Evert, S. (2008). Corpus Frequency Test Wizard [Computer program]. http://sigil.collocations.de/wizard.html
Biber, D., & Barbieri, F. (2007). Lexical bundles in university spoken and written registers. English for specific purposes, 26(3), 263-286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2006.08.003
Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Cortes, V. (2004). If you look at…: Lexical bundles in university teaching and textbooks. Applied linguistics, 25(3), 371-405. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/25.3.371
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (2000). Longman grammar of spoken and written English.
Bychkovska, T., & Lee, J. J. (2017). At the same time: Lexical bundles in L1 and L2 university student argumentative writing. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 20, 38-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.10.008
Chen, Y. H., & Baker, P. (2016). Investigating criterial discourse features across second language development: Lexical bundles in rated learner essays, CEFR B1, B2 and C1. Applied linguistics, 37(6), 849-880.
Chen, Y., & Baker, P. (2010). Lexical bundles in L1 and L2 academic writing. Language Learning and Technology, 14(2), 30-49.
Cheng, S. W. (2010). A Corpus-Based Approach to the Study of Speech Act of Thanking. Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 36(2).
Chun-Guang, T. (2014). An empirical research on the corpus-driven lexical chunks instruction. International Journal of English Language Teaching, 2(2), 1-36.
Cortes, V. (2004). Lexical bundles in published and student disciplinary writing: Examples from history and biology. English for specific purposes, 23(4), 397-423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2003.12.001
Cortes, V. (2006). Teaching lexical bundles in the disciplines: An example from a writing intensive history class. Linguistics and education, 17(4), 391-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2007.02.001
Coxhead, A. (2008). Phraseology and English for academic purposes. Phraseology in language learning and teaching, 149-161.
Cui, X., & Kim, Y. (2023). Structural and functional differences between bundles of different lengths: A corpus-driven study. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1061097
Esfandiari, R., & Barbary, F. (2017). A contrastive corpus-driven study of lexical bundles between English writers and Persian writers in psychology research articles. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 29, 21-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2017.09.002.
Esfandiari, R., Ahmadi, M., & Schaefer, E. (2021). A Corpus-based Study on the Use and Syntactic Functions of Lexical Bundles in Applied Linguistics Research Articles in Two Contexts of Publications. Applied Research on English Language, 10(4), 139-166. https://doi.org/10.22108/ARE.2021.130833.1787
Estaji, M., & Montazeri, M. R. (2022). Native English and non-native authors’ utilisation of lexical bundles: A corpus-based study of scholarly public health papers. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies, 40(2), 177-199. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2022.2043169
Ganji, M., & Nasrabady, P. (2021). An analysis of the multiword units presented in IELTS speaking preparation books published by Iranian authors. Applied Research on English Language, 10(3), 137-160. https://doi.org/10.22108/ARE.2021.126390.1666
Gómez Burgos, E. (2015). First year university students' use of formulaic sequences in oral and written descriptions. Profile Issues in Teachers Professional Development, 17(1), 25-33. https://doi. org/10.15446/profile. v17n1. 43438
Grabowski, Ł. (2015). Keywords and lexical bundles within English pharmaceutical discourse: A corpus-driven description. English for Specific Purposes, 38, 23-33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2014.10.004
Granger, S. (1998). Prefabricated patterns in advanced EFL writing: Collocations and lexical phrases. Phraseology: Theory, analysis and applications, 145-160.
Granger, S., & Meunier, F. (2008). Phraseology in language learning and teaching. Where to from where. Phraseology: An interdisciplinary perspective. New York/Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 247-252. http://digital.casalini.it/9789027291318
Gries, S. T., & Ellis, N. C. (2015). Statistical measures for usage‐based linguistics. Language Learning, 65(S1), 228-255. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12119
Hejazi, H. (2021). A Corpus-Based Investigation of Lexical Bundles and Keyness in B1, B2 and C1 ESL Learners’ Academic Writing [Doctoral dissertation, University of Liverpool]. University of Liverpool. The University of Liverpool Repository. https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/id/eprint/3154170
Henriksen, B. (2013). Research on L2 learners’ collocational competence and development–a progress report. C. Bardel, C. Lindqvist, & B. Laufer (Eds.) L, 2, 29-56.
Hyland, K. (2008). As can be seen: Lexical bundles and disciplinary variation. English for specific purposes, 27(1), 4-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2007.06.001
Hyland, K. (2012). Bundles in academic discourse. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 32, 150-169. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190512000037
Hyland, K., & Jiang, F. (2018). Academic lexical bundles: How are they changing? International Journal of Corpus Linguistics, 23(4), 383-407.
Jablonkai, R. (2009). In the light of: A corpus-based analysis of lexical bundles in two EU-related registers. Corvinus University of Budapest: WopaLP, 3, 1-26.
Jalali, H. (2013). Lexical bundles in applied linguistics: Variations across postgraduate genres. Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Translation Studies, 2(2), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.22034/EFL.2013.79199
Jiangang, S. (2017). A corpus-based study of contrastive/concessive linking adverbials in spoken English of Chinese EFL learners. Studies in Literature and Language, 14(2), 17-25. https://doi.org/10.3968/9273
Juknevičienė, R. (2009). Lexical bundles in learner language: Lithuanian learners vs. native speakers. Kalbotyra, 61, 61-72.
Karabacak, E., & Qin, J. (2013). Comparison of lexical bundles used by Turkish, Chinese, and American university students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 622-628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.01.101
Kashiha, H., & Chan, S. H. (2015). A little bit about: Differences in native and non-native speakers’ use of formulaic language. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 35(4), 297-310. https://doi.org/10.1080/07268602.2015.1067132
Khazaee, H., Maftoon, P., Birjandi, P., & Rezaie Golandoz, G. (2020). Hedges in English for Academic Purposes: A Corpus-based study of Iranian EFL learners. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 8(33), 109-122. https://sanad.iau.ir/journal/jfl/Article/677137?jid=677137
Kuswoyo, H., Sujatna, E. T. S., Indrayani, L. M., & Rido, A. (2020). Cohesive conjunctions and so as discourse strategies in English native and non-native engineering lecturers: A corpus-based study. International Journal of Advanced Science and Technology, 29(7), 2322-2335. http://sersc.org/journals/index.php/IJAST/article/view/17970
Lehecka, T. (2015). Collocation and colligation. In Handbook of pragmatics online. Benjamins.
Li, J., & Schmitt, N. (2009). The acquisition of lexical phrases in academic writing: A longitudinal case study. journal of second Language Writing, 18(2), 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2009.02.001
Liu, C.-Y., & Chen, H. J. H. (2020). Analyzing the functions of lexical bundles in undergraduate academic lectures for pedagogical use. English for Specific Purposes, 58, 122-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2019.12.003
Lu, X., & Deng, J. (2019). With the rapid development: A contrastive analysis of lexical bundles in dissertation abstracts by Chinese and L1 English doctoral students. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 39, 21-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2019.03.008
Ma, G. H. (2009). Lexical bundles in L2 timed writing of English majors. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1, 54-59.
Mohammadi, M., & Enayati, B. (2018). The Effects of Lexical Chunks Teaching on EFL Intermediate Learners' Speaking Fluency. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 179-192. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11313a
Nasrabady, P., Elahi Shirvan, M., & Ehsan Golparvar, S. (2020). Exploring lexical bundles in recent published papers in the field of applied linguistics. Journal of World Languages, 6(3), 175-197. https://doi.org/10.1080/21698252.2020.1797992
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge University Press.
Oakey, D. (2020). Phrases in EAP academic writing pedagogy: Illuminating Halliday’s influence on research and practice. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 44: 100829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2019.100829
O'keeffe, A., McCarthy, M., & Carter, R. (2007). From corpus to classroom: Language use and language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Öztürk, Y., & Köse, G. D. (2016). Turkish and native English academic writers’ use of lexical bundles. Journal of language and linguistic studies, 12(1), 149-165.
Pan, F., & Liu, C. (2019). Comparing L1-L2 differences in lexical bundles in student and expert writing. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 37(2), 142–157. https://doi.org/10.2989/16073614.2019.1625276
Pan, F., Reppen, R., & Biber, D. (2016). Comparing patterns of L1 versus L2 English academic professionals: Lexical bundles in Telecommunications research journals. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 21, 60-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2015.11.003
Ping, P. (2009). A study on the use of four-word lexical bundles in argumentative essays by Chinese English-majors: A comparative study based on WECCL and LOCNESS. CELEA journal, 32(3), 25-45. . http://www.celea.org.cn/teic/85/85-25.pdf
Qin, J. (2014). Use of formulaic bundles by non-native English graduate writers and published authors in applied linguistics. System 42(1), 220–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.12.003
Reppen, R., & Olson, S. B. (2020). Lexical bundles across disciplines. U. Römer, V. Cortes & E. Friginal. Advances in Corpus-based Research on Academic Writing: Effects of discipline, register, and writer expertise, 169-182.
Ruan, Z. (2017). Lexical bundles in Chinese undergraduate academic writing at an English medium university. RELC Journal, 48(3), 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882166312
Saito, K., & Liu, Y. (2022). Roles of collocation in L2 oral proficiency revisited: Different tasks, L1 vs. L2 raters, and cross-sectional vs. longitudinal analyses. Second Language Research, 38(3), 531-554. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658320988055
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual, Springer.
Schmitt, N., & Carter, R. (2004). Formulaic sequences in action. Formulaic sequences: Acquisition, processing and use, 1-22. https://digital.casalini.it/9789027295750
Shahriari Ahmadi, H., Ghonsooly, B., & Hosseini Fatemi, A. (2013). Analyzing research article introductions by Iranian and native English-speaking authors of Applied Linguistics. International Journal of Research, 2(3), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.5861/ijrsll.2012.158
Shin, Y. K. (2018). The Construction of English Lexical Bundles in Context by Native and Nonnative Freshman University Students. English teaching, 73(3), 115-139. https://doi.org/10.15858/engtea.73.3.201809.115
Shirazizadeh, M., & Amirfazlian, R. (2021). Lexical bundles in theses, articles and textbooks of applied linguistics: Investigating intra disciplinary uniformity and variation. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 49, 100946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2020.100946
Simpson-Vlach, R., & Leicher, S. (2006). The MICASE Handbook. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
Staples, S., Egbert, J., Biber, D., & McClair, A. (2013). Formulaic sequences and EAP writing development: Lexical bundles in the TOEFL iBT writing section. Journal of English for academic purposes, 12(3), 214-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeap.2013.05.002
Stengers, H., Boers, F., Housen, A., & Eyckmans, J. (2011). Formulaic sequences and L2 oral proficiency: Does the type of target language influence the association?
Svensén, B. (2009). A handbook of lexicography: The theory and practice of dictionary-making. Cambridge University Press.
Vaziri, A., Barjesteh, H., & Nasrollahi Mouziraji, A. (2023). Formulaic Sequences in Learners’ Spoken English: A Comparative Corpus- based Study between Native and Non-Native Speakers of English. Iranian Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 12(3), 56-72.
Wang, M., & Zhang, Y. (2021). ‘According to…’: The impact of language background and writing expertise on textual priming patterns of multi-word sequences in academic writing. Journal of English for Specific Purposes, 61, 47-59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658320988055
Wei, Y., & Lei, L. (2011). Lexical bundles in the academic writing of advanced Chinese EFL learners. RELC journal, 42(2), 155-166. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688211407295
Wu, H. (2019). A Corpus-based Analysis of TESOL EFL Students' Use of Logical Connectors in Spoken English. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 9(6), 625-636. https://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0906.04
Xu, R., & Wijitsopon, R. (2023). Corpus linguistics and cinematic discourse: Lexical bundles in mainstream film scripts. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 16(1), 545-574. https://so04.tcithaijo.org/index.php/LEARN/article/view/263456
Yakut, I., & Yuvayapan, F. (2022). Forms and functions of self-repetitions in spoken discourse: A corpus linguistics analysis of L1 and L2 English. Topics in Linguistics, 23(1), 83-96. https://doi.org/10.2478/topling-2022-0007
Yang, B. (2020). A Corpus-based study of synonymous epistemic adverbs perhaps, probably, maybe and possibly. Research Journal of Education, 6(8), 158-168. : https://doi.org/10.32861/rje.68.158.168
Young, R. F., & Miller, E. R. (2004). Learning as changing participation: Discourse roles in ESL writing conferences. The Modern Language Journal, 88(4), 519-535. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0026-7902.2004.t01-16-.x
Zago, R. (2020). Film discourse. In E. Friginal & J. A. Hardy The routledge handbook of corpus approaches to discourse analysis, 168–182. Routledge.