Azoxystrobin-Induced Behavioural and Physiological Toxicity in Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): Ecological Implications for Aquaculture Environments
Subject Areas : Journal of Chemical Health Risks
Gopal Anapana
1
*
,
Venkata Rathnamma Vakita
2
1 - Research Scholar, Department of Zoology & Aquaculture, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
2 - Professor, Department of Zoology & Aquaculture, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
Keywords: Azoxystrobin, Behavioural toxicity, Ctenopharyngodon idella, Ecotoxicology, Haematological biomarkers, Histopathology,
Abstract :
Azoxystrobin is a widely used broad-spectrum fungicide in agriculture, yet its persistence in aquatic ecosystems raises environmental concerns. Building upon previous findings on its haematological toxicity in Ctenopharyngodon idella (grass carp), this study evaluates its acute behavioural, haematological, and histopathological impacts to provide a broader toxicological assessment. Juvenile C. idella were exposed to both sublethal and lethal concentrations of Azoxystrobin (0.1–1.0 mg L-¹) over 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours periods. Behavioural observations were systematically recorded. Haematological parameters, including Red Blood cells (RBC) count, Haemoglobin (Hb), and Haematocrit (Hct), were measured. Histopathological examination of gills, liver, and brain tissues was conducted to assess organ-level toxicity. Fish exposed to Azoxystrobin exhibited concentration- and time-dependent behavioural abnormalities such as hyperactivity, erratic swimming, surface gasping, and loss of equilibrium. Haematological analysis revealed significant decreases in RBC count, Hb, and Hct (p < 0.05). Histological sections showed clear signs of tissue damage, including gill hyperplasia, hepatic vacuolation, and neuronal degeneration in brain tissues. Azoxystrobin exerts marked behavioural and physiological toxicity in C. idella, reinforcing its ecological risks to non-target freshwater organisms. The results highlight the importance of environmental regulation and call for routine ecotoxicological surveillance of commonly used agrochemicals in aquatic habitats.
1. Gopal A., Gurubilli C.R., Mudunuru S., Rathnamma V., 2024. Toxicological and hematological assessment of azoxystrobin in freshwater fish: a study on grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). African Journal of Biomedical Research. 27(4S), 6996-7003.
2. Gopal A., Rathnamma V.V., 2025. Azoxystrobin-induced oxidative stress and reduced oxygen consumption in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): a multi-biomarker toxicity evaluation. Toxicology International. 32(3), 567-578.
3. Kumar M., Mishra A., Verma A., Jain A., Khan A.A., Dwivedi S., Trivedi S.P., 2024. Assessment of oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and histopathological alterations in freshwater food fish Channa punctatus exposed to fungicide, mancozeb. Journal of Applied Biology and Biotechnology. 12(1), 159-164.
4. Pandey G., Rathore H., 2023. Toxicity of strobilurin fungicides: a comprehensive review. Journal of Chemical Health Risks. 13(2), 89-105.
5. Qiu T., Wang H., Liu L., Chen J., 2022. Long-term exposure to azoxystrobin induces immunodeficiency in fish that are vulnerable to subsequent rhabdovirus infection. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 248, 114331.
6. Battaglin W.A., Sandstrom M.W., Kuivila K.M., Kolpin D.W., Meyer M.T., 2011. Occurrence of azoxystrobin, propiconazole, and selected other fungicides in U.S. streams, 2005–2006. Water Air Soil Pollution. 218(1-4), 307-322.
7. Cao F., Wu P., Huang L., Li H., Qian L., Pang S., Qiu L., 2018. Short-term developmental effects and potential mechanisms of azoxystrobin in larval and adult zebrafish (Danio rerio). Aquatic Toxicology. 198, 129-140.
8. Rocha T.L., Félix L.M., Farias D., 2024. Ecotoxicological effects of emerging contaminants on aquatic species. Toxics. 12(8), 567.
9. Baldissera M.D., Souza C.F., Descovi S.N., Zanella R., Prestes O.D., da Silva A.S., Baldisserotto B., 2019. Organophosphate pesticide trichlorfon induced neurotoxic effects in freshwater silver catfish Rhamdia quelen via disruption of blood–brain barrier: implications on oxidative status, cell viability, and brain neurotransmitters. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C: Toxicology and Pharmacology. 218, 8-13.
10. Fabiani C., Antollini S.S., 2019. Alzheimer’s disease as a membrane disorder: spatial cross-talk among β-amyloid peptides, nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and lipid rafts. Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience. 13, 309.
11. Cuenca A.L.R., Simonato J.D., Meletti P.C., 2022. Acute exposure of embryo, larvae, and adults of Danio rerio to fipronil commercial formulation reveals effects on development and motor control. Ecotoxicology. 31(3), 543-556.
12. Chen C., Wang Y., Zhao X., Qian Y., 2014. The combined toxicity assessment of carp (Cyprinus carpio) acetylcholinesterase activity by binary mixtures of chlorpyrifos and four other insecticides. Ecotoxicology. 23(2), 289-298.
13. Seltenrich N., 2022. More pieces of the puzzle: new insights into azoxystrobin exposures and neurotoxicity. Environmental Health Perspectives. 130(4), 44002.
14. Reis C.G., Bastos L.M., Chitolina R., Gallas-Lopes M., Zanona Q.K., Becker S.Z., Herrmann A.P., Piato A., 2023. Neurobehavioral effects of fungicides in zebrafish: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports. 13(1), 18142.
15. Hamilton P.B., Cowx I.G., Oleksiak M.F., 2016. Population-level consequences for wild fish exposed to sublethal concentrations of chemicals—a critical review. Fish and Fisheries. 17(2), 545-559.
16. Brady S.P., Monosson E., Matson C.W., Bickham J.W., 2017. Evolutionary toxicology: toward a unified understanding of life’s response to toxicants. Evolutionary Applications. 10(8), 745-751.
17. Rossi A.S., Michlig M.P., Repetti M.R., Cazenave J., 2024. Single and joint toxicity of azoxystrobin and cyproconazole to Prochilodus lineatus: bioconcentration and biochemical responses. Science of the Total Environment. 907, 167992.
18. Porras-Rivera G., Górski K., Colin N., 2024. Behavioral biomarkers in fishes: a non-lethal approach to assess the effects of chemical pollution on freshwater ecosystems. Environmental Research. 260, 119607.
19. OECD, 1998. OECD principles on good laboratory practice. OECD Series on Principles of Good Laboratory Practice and Compliance Monitoring, No. 1. OECD Publishing, Paris.
20. Finney D.J., 1971. Probit analysis, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, London, p. 333.
21. Bevilaqua F., Sachett A., Chitolina R., Garbinato C., Gasparetto H., Marcon M., Mocelin R., Dallegrave E., Conterato G., Piato A., Siebel A.M., 2020. A mixture of fipronil and fungicides induces alterations on behavioral and oxidative stress parameters in zebrafish. Ecotoxicology. 29(2), 140-147.
22. Wang Y., Lv L., Yu Y., Yang G., Xu Z., Wang Q., Cai L., 2017. Single and joint toxic effects of five selected pesticides on the early life stages of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Chemosphere. 189, 67-76.
23. Grădinariu L., Crețu M., Vizireanu C., Dediu L., 2025. Oxidative stress biomarkers in fish exposed to environmental concentrations of pharmaceutical pollutants: a review. Biology. 14(5), 472.
24. Das A., Das M., Paul N., Chatterjee S., Sarkar K., Bank S., Sarkar J., Bankura B., Roy D., Acharya K., Ghosh S., 2025. Bifenthrin causes disturbance in mitochondrial dynamics and bioenergetic system in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK 293). Environmental Pollution. 368, 125707.
25. Simon-Delso N., Amaral-Rogers V., Belzunces L.P., Bonmatin J.M., 2015. Systemic insecticides (neonicotinoids and fipronil): trends, uses, mode of action, and metabolites. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 22(1), 5-34.
26. Tudi M., Ruan H.D., Wang L., Lyu J., Sadler R., Connell D., Chu C., Phung D.T., 2021. Agriculture development, pesticide application, and its impact on the environment. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 18(3), 1112.