Investigating the Efficacy of Google Meet in Fostering Learner Autonomy and its Interaction with Motivation Levels in Iranian EFL Learners
Keywords: Google Meet, autonomy, motivation, online language learning,
Abstract :
This study investigated the impact of Google Meet instruction on learner autonomy in EFL learners, considering the potential moderating role of learner motivation. A quasi-experimental design with two groups involving 40 intermediate EFL learners was employed. Learner proficiency was assessed using the Oxford Placement Test (OPT). Learner motivation and autonomy were measured by the English Learning Motivation Questionnaire (ELMQ) and the Learner Autonomy Questionnaire (LAQ) before and after the intervention period. The results revealed a statistically significant increase in learner autonomy scores in the experimental group who received instruction through Google Meet, while the control group receiving traditional face-to-face instruction did not experience a significant change. Further analysis explored the interaction effect between learner motivation and Google Meet use. A two-way ANOVA revealed that learners with high motivation scored higher in both groups compared to those with low motivation. However, the experimental group consistently scored higher than the control group regardless of motivation level. Notably, learners with high motivation in the Google Meet group achieved the highest scores, while learners with low motivation in the control group scored the lowest. The results also confirmed that both learner motivation and Google Meet instruction, along with their interaction, significantly affect learner autonomy development. These findings contribute to the understanding of technology-assisted language learning environments and their potential to foster learner autonomy, while highlighting the important role of learner motivation in this process.
References:
Al-Maroof, R. S., Salloum, S. A., Hassanien, A. E., & Shaalan, K. (2020). Fear from COVID-19 and technology adoption: The impact of Google meet during coronavirus pandemic. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(3), 1293-1308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1830121
Azizinezhad, M., & Hashemi, M. (2013). A look at the status of computer assisted language learning and its applications. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 121-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.163
Bahari, A. (2020). Computer‐mediated feedback for L2 learners: Challenges versus affordances. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(1), 24-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12481
Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. State-of-the-art Article. Language Teaching, 40(1), 21–40. doi:10.1017/S0261444806003958
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.
Benson, P., & Voller, P. (Eds.). (2014). Autonomy and independence in language learning. Routledge.
Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007
Broadbent, J., Sharman, S., Panadero, E., & Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M. (2021). How does self-regulated learning influence formative assessment and summative grade? Comparing online and blended learners. The Internet and Higher Education, 50, 100805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2021.100805
Castillo Zaragoza, E. D. (2011). Identity, plurilingualism in self-access centers. In G. Murray, X. Gao & T. Lamb (Eds,) Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 91–106). Multilingual Matters.
Chen Hsieh, J. S., Wu, W. V., & Marek, M. W. (2016). Using the flipped classroom to enhance EFL learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(1-2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1111910
Cho, M., & Heron, M. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning: The role of motivation, emotion, and use of learning strategies in students’ learning experiences in a self-paced online mathematics course. Distance Education, 36(1), 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2015.1019963
Colson, R. & Hirumi, A. (2018). A Framework for the design of online competency-based education to promote student engagement. In Student engagement and participation: concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 203–220). IGI Global.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Handbook of self-determination research: Theoretical and applied issues. University of Rochester Press.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L
. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346.
Derakhshan, A., Kruk, M., Mehdizadeh, M., & Pawlak, M. (2021). Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: Sources and solutions. System, 101, 102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102556
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self-system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Newbury House Publishers.
Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (2014). Managing self-access language learning. University of Hong Kong Press.
Grabe, M. & Grabe, C. (2005). Integrating technology for meaningful learning. Houghton Mifflin College.
Han, Y. J. (2015). Successfully flipping the ESL classroom for learner autonomy. NYS TESOL Journal, 2(1), 98–109.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching. Longman Pearson Education Limited.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.94.3.319
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Pergamon.
Huang, J. (., & Benson, P. (2013). Autonomy, agency and identity in foreign and second language education. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 36(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2013-0002
Ironsi, S.C. (2017). Effect of test anxiety on academic performance of EFL learners. Lambert Academic Publishing.
Kang, M., Kim, S., Kang, J., Jang, J. & Kim, S. (2015). The Predictive Power of Self-Regulated Learning, Teaching Presence, and Perceived Interaction on the Outcomes of Google Plus-based Project Learning. In S. Carliner, C. Fulford & N. Ostashewski (Eds.), Proceedings of EdMedia 2015--World Conference on Educational Media and Technology (pp. 1444-1451). Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved May 5, 2024 from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/151420/.
Kormos, J., & Csizér, K. (2013). The interaction of motivation, self‐regulatory strategies, and autonomous learning behavior in different learner groups. TESOL Quarterly, 48(2), 275-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.129
Lai, C., Yeung, Y., & Hu, J. (2015). University student and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(4), 703-723. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441
Lamb, M. (2011). Future selves, motivation and autonomy in long-term EFL learning trajectories. In G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (Eds), Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 177-194). Multilingual Matters.
Lenkaitis, C. A. (2019). Technology as a mediating tool: Videoconferencing, L2 learning, and learner autonomy. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(5-6), 483-509. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1572018
Lewandowski, M. (2015). Creating virtual classrooms (using Google Hangouts) for improving language competency, Language Issues: The ESOL Journal, 26(1), 37-42.
Liu, T. (2009). A context‐aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(6), 515-527. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00329.x
Macaskill, A., & Taylor, E. (2010). The development of a brief measure of learner autonomy in university students. Studies in Higher Education, 35(3), 351-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070903502703
Magid, M., & Chan, L. (2012). Motivating English learners by helping them visualise their ideal L2 self: Lessons from two motivational programmes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 113-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2011.614693
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954.
Martinez-Nuñez, M., Borras-Gene, O., & Fidalgo-Blanco, Á. (2016). Virtual learning communities in Google plus, implications, and sustainability in MOOCs. Journal of Information Technology Research, 9(3), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.4018/jitr.2016070102
McKinley, J. (2015). Critical argument and writer identity: Social constructivism as a theoretical framework for EFL academic writing. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 12(3), 184-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2015.1060558
Melhe, M. A., Salah, B. M., & Hayajneh, W. S. (2021). Impact of training on positive thinking for improving psychological hardiness and reducing academic stresses among academically-late students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 21(1), 132–146. https://doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2021.3.010
Mohammadi Zenouzagh, Z., Admiraal, W., & Saab, N. (2023). Learner autonomy, learner engagement and learner satisfaction in text-based and multimodal computer mediated writing environments. Education and Information Technologies, 28(11), 14283-14323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11615-w
Mok, H. N. (2014). Teaching tip: The flipped classroom. Journal of Information Systems Education, 25(1), 7–11.
Murdock, J. L., & Williams, A. M. (2011). Creating an online learning community: Is it possible? Innovative Higher Education, 36(5), 305-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-011-9188-6
Niciporuc, T. (2014). Comparative analysis of the engagement rate on Facebook and Google Plus social networks, Proceedings of International Academic Conferences (No. 0902287), International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences.
O’malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Olsen, J. K., Sharma, K., Rummel, N., & Aleven, V. (2020). Temporal analysis of multimodal data to predict collaborative learning outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1527-1547. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12982
Pawlak, M., Derakhshan, A., Mehdizadeh, M., & Kruk, M. (2021). Boredom in online English language classes: Mediating variables and coping strategies. Language Teaching Research, 136216882110649. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211064944
Ratnaningsih, D., Purba, D., Wiratno, D., & Nofandi, F. (2019). The influence of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) to improve English speaking skills. English Linguistics, Literature, and Language Teaching in a Changing Era, 144-149. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429021039-19
Reinders, H., & White, C. (2016). 20 years of autonomy and technology: How far have we come and where to next? Language Learning & Technology, 20(2), 143–154. http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2016/reinderswhite.pdf
Ribbe, E., & Bezanilla, M.-J. (2013). Scaffolding learner autonomy in online university courses. Digital Education Review (24), 98–112. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316968024
Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 299–323. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_5
Sanprasert, N. (2010). The application of a course management system to enhance autonomy in learning English as a foreign language. System, 38(1), 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.010
Sato, T., Murase, F., & Burden, T. (2020). An empirical study on vocabulary recall and learner autonomy through Mobile?Assisted language learning in blended learning settings. CALICO Journal, 37(3), 254-276. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.40436
Smith, K. M., & Craig, H. (2013). Enhancing learner autonomy through CALL: A new model in EFL curriculum design. CALICO Journal, 30(2), 252–278. https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.30.2.252-278
Susanti, A., Rachmajanti, S., & Mustofa, A. (2023). Between teacher’ roles and students’ social: Learner autonomy in online learning for EFL students during the pandemic. Cogent Education, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2204698
Tafazoli, D. (2019). Attitude towards computer-assisted language learning: Do gender, age and educational level matter? Teaching English with Technology, 19(3), 22–39. http://www.tewtjournal.org
Tran, T. Q., & Duong, T. M. (2020). EFL learners’ perceptions of factors influencing learner autonomy development. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 41(1), 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.009
Tsai, Y. (2019). Promotion of learner autonomy within the framework of a flipped EFL instructional model: Perception and perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(7), 979-1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1650779
Ueki, M. & Takeuchi, O. (2013). Forming a clearer image of the ideal L2 self: the L2 Motivational Self System and learner autonomy in a Japanese EFL context, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 238-252, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2013.836205
Ushioda, E. (2006). Language motivation in a reconfigured Europe: Access, identity, autonomy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 27(2), 148-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434630608668545
Ushioda, E. (2011). Motivating learners to speak as themselves. In G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (Eds), Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 11-24). Multilingual Matters.
Nguyen, S. V., & Habók, A. (2021). Designing and validating the learner autonomy perception questionnaire. Heliyon, 7(4), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06831
Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories, and research. Sage.
Zafar, S., & Meenakshi, K. (2012). Individual learner differences and second language acquisition: A review. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.3.4.639-646
Zhang, Z., Liu, T., & Lee, C. B. (2021). Language learners’ enjoyment and emotion regulation in online collaborative learning. System, 98, 102478. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102478
Zhong, Q. M. (2018). The evolution of learner autonomy in online environments: A case study in a New Zealand context. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 9, 71–85. https://doi.org/10.37237/090106
Al-Maroof, R. S., Salloum, S. A., Hassanien, A. E., & Shaalan, K. (2020). Fear from COVID-19 and technology adoption: The impact of Google meet during coronavirus pandemic. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(3), 1293-1308. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1830121
Azizinezhad, M., & Hashemi, M. (2013). A look at the status of computer assisted language learning and its applications. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 93, 121-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.09.163
Bahari, A. (2020). Computer‐mediated feedback for L2 learners: Challenges versus affordances. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(1), 24-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12481
Benson, P. (2007). Autonomy in language teaching and learning. State-of-the-art Article. Language Teaching, 40(1), 21–40. doi:10.1017/S0261444806003958
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy (2nd ed.). Pearson Education.
Benson, P., & Voller, P. (Eds.). (2014). Autonomy and independence in language learning. Routledge.
Broadbent, J., & Poon, W. (2015). Self-regulated learning strategies & academic achievement in online higher education learning environments: A systematic review. The Internet and Higher Education, 27, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2015.04.007
Broadbent, J., Sharman, S., Panadero, E., & Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M. (2021). How does self-regulated learning influence formative assessment and summative grade? Comparing online and blended learners. The Internet and Higher Education, 50, 100805. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2021.100805
Castillo Zaragoza, E. D. (2011). Identity, plurilingualism in self-access centers. In G. Murray, X. Gao & T. Lamb (Eds,) Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 91–106). Multilingual Matters.
Chen Hsieh, J. S., Wu, W. V., & Marek, M. W. (2016). Using the flipped classroom to enhance EFL learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(1-2), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1111910
Cho, M., & Heron, M. L. (2015). Self-regulated learning: The role of motivation, emotion, and use of learning strategies in students’ learning experiences in a self-paced online mathematics course. Distance Education, 36(1), 80-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2015.1019963
Colson, R. & Hirumi, A. (2018). A Framework for the design of online competency-based education to promote student engagement. In Student engagement and participation: concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 203–220). IGI Global.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Handbook of self-determination research: Theoretical and applied issues. University of Rochester Press.
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L
. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346.
Derakhshan, A., Kruk, M., Mehdizadeh, M., & Pawlak, M. (2021). Boredom in online classes in the Iranian EFL context: Sources and solutions. System, 101, 102556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102556
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self-system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Multilingual Matters.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second-language learning. Newbury House Publishers.
Gardner, D., & Miller, L. (2014). Managing self-access language learning. University of Hong Kong Press.
Grabe, M. & Grabe, C. (2005). Integrating technology for meaningful learning. Houghton Mifflin College.
Han, Y. J. (2015). Successfully flipping the ESL classroom for learner autonomy. NYS TESOL Journal, 2(1), 98–109.
Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching. Longman Pearson Education Limited.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-295x.94.3.319
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in foreign language learning. Pergamon.
Huang, J. (., & Benson, P. (2013). Autonomy, agency and identity in foreign and second language education. Chinese Journal of Applied Linguistics, 36(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/cjal-2013-0002
Ironsi, S.C. (2017). Effect of test anxiety on academic performance of EFL learners. Lambert Academic Publishing.
Kang, M., Kim, S., Kang, J., Jang, J. & Kim, S. (2015). The Predictive Power of Self-Regulated Learning, Teaching Presence, and Perceived Interaction on the Outcomes of Google Plus-based Project Learning. In S. Carliner, C. Fulford & N. Ostashewski (Eds.), Proceedings of EdMedia 2015--World Conference on Educational Media and Technology (pp. 1444-1451). Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE). Retrieved May 5, 2024 from https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/151420/.
Kormos, J., & Csizér, K. (2013). The interaction of motivation, self‐regulatory strategies, and autonomous learning behavior in different learner groups. TESOL Quarterly, 48(2), 275-299. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.129
Lai, C., Yeung, Y., & Hu, J. (2015). University student and teacher perceptions of teacher roles in promoting autonomous language learning with technology outside the classroom. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 29(4), 703-723. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2015.1016441
Lamb, M. (2011). Future selves, motivation and autonomy in long-term EFL learning trajectories. In G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (Eds), Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 177-194). Multilingual Matters.
Lenkaitis, C. A. (2019). Technology as a mediating tool: Videoconferencing, L2 learning, and learner autonomy. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 33(5-6), 483-509. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1572018
Lewandowski, M. (2015). Creating virtual classrooms (using Google Hangouts) for improving language competency, Language Issues: The ESOL Journal, 26(1), 37-42.
Liu, T. (2009). A context‐aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(6), 515-527. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2729.2009.00329.x
Macaskill, A., & Taylor, E. (2010). The development of a brief measure of learner autonomy in university students. Studies in Higher Education, 35(3), 351-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075070903502703
Magid, M., & Chan, L. (2012). Motivating English learners by helping them visualise their ideal L2 self: Lessons from two motivational programmes. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 6(2), 113-125. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2011.614693
Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954-969. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954.
Martinez-Nuñez, M., Borras-Gene, O., & Fidalgo-Blanco, Á. (2016). Virtual learning communities in Google plus, implications, and sustainability in MOOCs. Journal of Information Technology Research, 9(3), 18-36. https://doi.org/10.4018/jitr.2016070102
McKinley, J. (2015). Critical argument and writer identity: Social constructivism as a theoretical framework for EFL academic writing. Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, 12(3), 184-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427587.2015.1060558
Melhe, M. A., Salah, B. M., & Hayajneh, W. S. (2021). Impact of training on positive thinking for improving psychological hardiness and reducing academic stresses among academically-late students. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice, 21(1), 132–146. https://doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2021.3.010
Mohammadi Zenouzagh, Z., Admiraal, W., & Saab, N. (2023). Learner autonomy, learner engagement and learner satisfaction in text-based and multimodal computer mediated writing environments. Education and Information Technologies, 28(11), 14283-14323. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11615-w
Mok, H. N. (2014). Teaching tip: The flipped classroom. Journal of Information Systems Education, 25(1), 7–11.
Murdock, J. L., & Williams, A. M. (2011). Creating an online learning community: Is it possible? Innovative Higher Education, 36(5), 305-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-011-9188-6
Niciporuc, T. (2014). Comparative analysis of the engagement rate on Facebook and Google Plus social networks, Proceedings of International Academic Conferences (No. 0902287), International Institute of Social and Economic Sciences.
O’malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Olsen, J. K., Sharma, K., Rummel, N., & Aleven, V. (2020). Temporal analysis of multimodal data to predict collaborative learning outcomes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(5), 1527-1547. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12982
Pawlak, M., Derakhshan, A., Mehdizadeh, M., & Kruk, M. (2021). Boredom in online English language classes: Mediating variables and coping strategies. Language Teaching Research, 136216882110649. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211064944
Ratnaningsih, D., Purba, D., Wiratno, D., & Nofandi, F. (2019). The influence of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) to improve English speaking skills. English Linguistics, Literature, and Language Teaching in a Changing Era, 144-149. https://doi.org/10.1201/9780429021039-19
Reinders, H., & White, C. (2016). 20 years of autonomy and technology: How far have we come and where to next? Language Learning & Technology, 20(2), 143–154. http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2016/reinderswhite.pdf
Ribbe, E., & Bezanilla, M.-J. (2013). Scaffolding learner autonomy in online university courses. Digital Education Review (24), 98–112. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316968024
Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 299–323. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1207/s15326985ep2603&4_5
Sanprasert, N. (2010). The application of a course management system to enhance autonomy in learning English as a foreign language. System, 38(1), 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.010
Sato, T., Murase, F., & Burden, T. (2020). An empirical study on vocabulary recall and learner autonomy through Mobile?Assisted language learning in blended learning settings. CALICO Journal, 37(3), 254-276. https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.40436
Smith, K. M., & Craig, H. (2013). Enhancing learner autonomy through CALL: A new model in EFL curriculum design. CALICO Journal, 30(2), 252–278. https://doi.org/10.11139/cj.30.2.252-278
Susanti, A., Rachmajanti, S., & Mustofa, A. (2023). Between teacher’ roles and students’ social: Learner autonomy in online learning for EFL students during the pandemic. Cogent Education, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2204698
Tafazoli, D. (2019). Attitude towards computer-assisted language learning: Do gender, age and educational level matter? Teaching English with Technology, 19(3), 22–39. http://www.tewtjournal.org
Tran, T. Q., & Duong, T. M. (2020). EFL learners’ perceptions of factors influencing learner autonomy development. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 41(1), 194–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2018.02.009
Tsai, Y. (2019). Promotion of learner autonomy within the framework of a flipped EFL instructional model: Perception and perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(7), 979-1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1650779
Ueki, M. & Takeuchi, O. (2013). Forming a clearer image of the ideal L2 self: the L2 Motivational Self System and learner autonomy in a Japanese EFL context, Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 238-252, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2013.836205
Ushioda, E. (2006). Language motivation in a reconfigured Europe: Access, identity, autonomy. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 27(2), 148-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434630608668545
Ushioda, E. (2011). Motivating learners to speak as themselves. In G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (Eds), Identity, motivation and autonomy in language learning (pp. 11-24). Multilingual Matters.
Nguyen, S. V., & Habók, A. (2021). Designing and validating the learner autonomy perception questionnaire. Heliyon, 7(4), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06831
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