ارزیابی برخی صفات فیزیکوشیمیایی در ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های روغنی و کنسروی برگزیده زیتون (Olea europaea) سازگار با شرایط اقلیمی گرگان
محورهای موضوعی : ژنتیکسمیه ابراهیم نیا 1 , اسماعیل سیفی 2 , خدایار همتی 3 , حسین فریدونی 4
1 - گروه علوم باغبانی، دانشگاه علوم کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی گرگان، گرگان، ایران
2 - گروه علوم باغبانی، دانشگاه علوم کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی گرگان، گرگان، ایران
3 - گروه علوم باغبانی، دانشگاه علوم کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی گرگان، گرگان، ایران
4 - مرکز تحقیقات کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی استان گلستان، گرگان، ایران
کلید واژه: روغن زیتون, اسید چرب, آنتی‌اکسیدان‌ها, خصوصیات فیزیکوشیمیایی, اسید اولئیک,
چکیده مقاله :
با توجه به اهمیت شناسایی ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های بومی و انتخاب ارقام مناسب در گسترش موفق سطح زیر کشت درختان زیتون، بررسی حاضر جهت ارزیابی ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های روغنی و کنسروی برگزیده و سازگار با شرایط اقلیمی گرگان انجام شد. آزمایش در قالب طرح کاملاً تصادفی با سه تکرار بر روی 24 ژنوتیپ در مجموعه هاشم‌‌‌آباد در استان گلستان انجام شد. شاخص رسیدگی میوه با روش پیشنهادی شورای بین‌‌‌المللی روغن زیتون و درصد روغن به وسیله سوکسله اندازه‌گیری شدند. برای بررسی کیفیت از روغن حاصل از سانتریفیوژ استفاده گردید. شش ژنوتیپ برتر بر اساس بیش‌ترین درصد روغن انتخاب و از نظر خصوصیات فیزیکوشیمیایی روغن و درصد اسیدهای چرب مورد بررسی قرار گرفتند. نتایج نشان داد که بیش‌ترین و کمترین وزن میوه به ترتیب در ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های I7 و E6 مشاهده شد. بالاترین درصد گوشت میوه مربوط به ژنوتیپ I7 بود. ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های E11 و D5 به ترتیب بیش‌ترین درصد روغن در ماده خشک و تر را تولید کردند. کمترین اسیدیته مربوط به ژنوتیپ B7 و کمترین پراکسید مربوط به ژنوتیپ E11 بود. ژنوتیپ F1 و بعد از آن E11 دارای بالاترین میزان ترکیبات فنلی روغن بودند. ژنوتیپ A10 دارای بالاترین میزان کلروفیل و کاروتنوئیدها، ژنوتیپ F9 دارای کمترین شاخص K232 و K270 و بعد از آن ژنوتیپ A10 کمترین شاخص K270 را نشان داد. بالاترین میزان اسید اولئیک و پایین‌‌‌ترین اسید لینولئیک مربوط به ژنوتیپ A10 و ژنوتیپ B7 دارای کمترین میزان اسید پالمتیک بود. با توجه به وزن میوه، درصد گوشت و کروی بودن میوه، هشت ژنوتیپ کنسروی برای مطالعات بیش‌‌‌تر انتخاب شدند. از میان ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های برگزیده کنسروی ژنوتیپ I7 بالاترین میزان فلاونوئیدها، بالاترین میزان ترکیبات فنلی، بیش‌ترین میزان آنتی‌اکسیدان‌ها و بیش‌ترین میزان آنتوسیانین را دارا بود. طبق بررسی‌‌‌های حاصل، بهترین ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های روغنی A10 وE11 ، بهترین ژنوتیپ کنسروی I7 و بهترین ژنوتیپ‌‌‌های دومنظوره F10 و B7 تعیین شدند.
Because of the importance of identifying the native genotypes and selecting the appropriate cultivars for successful development of olive tree cultivation, the present study was conducted to evaluate the selected oil and table genotypes compatible with climatic conditions of Gorgan. The experiment was done in a completely randomized design with three replications on 24 genotypes in Hashemabad complex in Golestan province. The maturity index of fruit was measured according to a method suggested by International Olive Oil Council and the percentage of oil was determined using a soxhlet method. Six genotypes with higher percentage of oil were selected and the physicochemical properties of the oil and the percentage of fatty acids were determined. Results showed that the highest and lowest fruit weights were observed in genotypes I7 and E6, respectively. The highest percentage of fruit flesh was observed in I7. E11 and D5 had the highest percentages of oil in dry and fresh matter. The lowest acidity was observed in B7 and the lowest peroxide was seen in E11. Genotypes F1 and E11 had the highest oil phenolic compounds. A10 showed the highest amounts of chlorophylls and carotenoids. F9 had the lowest indexes of K232 and K270 and following that A10 had the lowest index of K270. The highest percentage of oleic acid and the lowest percentage of linoleic acid were observed in A10. Genotype B7 had the lowest percentage of palmitic acid. Due to fruit weight, percentage of flesh and fruit sphericity, eight table genotypes were selected for further study. Among the selected table genotypes, genotype I7 had the highest levels of flavonoids, phenolic compounds, antioxidants, and anthocyanin. According to the results, the best oil genotypes were A10 and E11, the best table genotype was I7 and the best dual-purpose genotypes were F10 and B7.
Alavi Rafiee, S., Farhosh, R. and Hadad Khodaparast, M.H. (2013). Physical and chemical characteristics of olive oils Iranian trade. Iranian Journal of Nutrition Science and Food Technology. 7(2): 85-94.
Arsalan, D., Karabekir, Y. and Schreiner, M. (2013). Variations of phenolic compounds, fatty acids and some qualitative characteristics of Sarıulak olive oil as induced by growing area. Food Research International. 54: 1897-1906.
Baccouri, B., Zarrouk, W., Krichene, D., Nouair, I., Ben Youssef, N., Daoud, D. and Zarrouk, M. (2007). Influence of fruit ripening and crop yield on chemical properties of virgin olive oils from seven selected oleasters (Olea europaea L.). Journal of Agronomy. 6(3): 388-396.
Ben Othman, N., Roblain, D., Chammen, N., Thonart, P. and Hamdi, M. (2009). Antioxidant phenolic compounds loss during the fermentation of Chetoui olives. Food Chemistry. 116: 662–669.
Boskou, D. 1996. Olive oil: Chemistry and Technology. AOCS press Champaign, IL, USA.
Boskou, G., Salta, F.N., Chrysostomou, S., Mylona, A., Chiou, A. and Andrikopoulos, N.K. ( 2006). Antioxidant capacity and phenolic profile of table olives from Greek market. Food Chemistry. 94: 558–564.
Ebrahimzade, M.A., Pourmorad, F. and Hafezi, S. ( 2008). Antioxidant activities of iranian corn silk. Turkish Journal of Biology. 32: 43-49.
Ebdali, N., Hoseini Mazinani, M., Atayi, S. and Hoseini, M. (2012). The variation in morphological traits and molecular markers Iranian olive cultivars (RAPD). Iran Biological Science Promotion. 24(6):868-879.
EEC. (2003). Characteristics of olive and olive pomace oils and their analytical methods EEC Regulation. (1989/2003). Official Journal of the European Communities. 298: 57–66.
Fahim Danesh, M. (2001). Evaluation of quality parameters of olive oil used in Iran. Thesis of MSc in Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch. Pp. 23-26.
Farhang Dost, Z., Asadolahi, S. and Zinanlo, E.A. (2014). Evaluate and compare the chemical characteristics of olive oil cultivars Zard, oily, Shenge, including Konservalia and Mary. Journal Management System. 3:23-29.
Fatemi, S.H., and Hammond, E.G. (1980). Analysis of pleate, lonoleate and linolenate hydroperoxides in oxidized ester mixtures. Journal of Lipids. 15:379-385.
Fedeli. E. (1977). Lipids of olive. Progress in the Chemistry of Fats and other Lipids.15:57-74.
Firestone, D.K., Carran, L. and Reina R.J. (1998). Update on control of olive oil adulteration and misbranding in the United States. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 65: 782-788.
Gomez-Rico, A., Fregapane, G. and Desamparados Salvador, M. (2008). Effect of cultivar and ripening on minor components in Spanish olive fruits and their corresponding virgin olive oils. Food Research International. 41: 433-440.
Gutfinger, T. (1981). Polyphenols in olive oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 58: 966-968.
Hashempour, A., Fotouhi Ghazvini, R., Bakhshi, D. and Asadi Sanam, S. (2011). Kazeron effect of climate on the qualitative indices olive oil. Journal of Crop Production. 41(1): 47-53.
Homapour, M., Hamedi, M., Moslehishad, M. and Safafar, H. (2014). Physical and chemical properties of olive oil extracted from olive cultivars grown in Shiraz and Kazeroon. Iranian Journal of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology. 9(1): 121-130.
International Olive Oil Council Trade standard applying olive oil and olive pomace oils. (2012) COI/T.15/NC n 3.
Iranian National Standard 1446: 1389. Olive oil- Specification and Test methods.
Lavelli, V. 2002. Comparison of the antioxidant activities of extra virgin olive oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 7704–7708.
Maestri, D.M., Labuckas, D.O., Meriles, J.M., Lamarque, A.L., Zygadlo, J.A. and Guzman, C.A. (1998). Seed Composition of soybean cultivars evaluated in different environmental conditions. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 77: 494-498.
Maghsodi, SH. (2005). Olive technology and its products. Publication of Agricultural Sciences. Tehran, Iran.
Malheiro, R., Sousa, A., Casal, S., Bento, A. and Pereira, J, A. (2011). Cultivar effect on the phenolic composition and antioxidant potential of stoned table olives. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49: 450-457.
Mania-Djebali, H., Krichene, D., Ouni, Y., Gallardo, L., Sanchez, J., Osorio, E., Daoud, D., Guido, F. and Zarrouk, M. (2012). Chemical profiles of five minor olive oil varieties grown in central Tunisia. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 27: 109-119.
Marsilio, V., Campestre, C. and Lanza, B. ( 2001). Phenolic compounds change during California-style ripe olive processing. Food Chemistry. 74: 55-60.
Mateos, R., and Garcia-Mesa, J.A. )2006(. Rapid and quantitative extraction method for the determination of chlorophylls and carotenoids in olive oil by high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chemistry. 385: 1247-1254.
Minguez-Mosquera, M.I., Rejano, L., Gandul, B., Sanchez, A.H. and Garrido, J. (1991). Color-pigment correlation in virgin olive oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 68: 322-337.
Najafian, L., Hadad Khodaparast, M.H. and Ghodsvali, A. (2008). Olive oil extraction from three olive varieties using enzyme processing. Iran Journal of Food Sciences and Technology. 4(1): 45-52.
Nikzad, N., Sahari, M.A., Ghavami, M., Piravi Vanak, Z., Hoseini, S.E., Safafar, H. and Boland Nazar, S.A. (2014). Physico-chemical properties and nutritional indexes of cultivars during table olive processing. Iran Journal of Food Sciences and Technology. 39:31-41.
Ozkaya, M.T., Cakir, E., Gokbayrak, Z., Ercan., H. and Taskin, N. 2006. Morphological and molecular characterization of Derik Halhali olive (Olea europaea L.) accessions grown in Derik–Mardin province of Turkey. Scientia Horticulturae. 108: 205–209.
Padula, G., Giordani, E., Bellini, E., Rosati, A., Pandolfi, S., Paoletti, A., Pannelli, G., Ripa, V., De Rose, F., Perri, E., Buccoliero, A. and Mennone, C. 2008. Field evaluation of new olive (Olea europaea L.) selections and effects of genotype and environment on productivity and fruit characteristics. Advances in Horticultural Science. 22(2): 87-94.
Panizzi, L., Scarpati, M.L. and Oriente, G. (1960). Costituzione dell’oleuropeina, glucoside amaro e ad azione ipotensiva dell’olivo. Nota II. Gazzetta dei Chimici Italiani. 90: 1449-1485.
Parvaneh, V. (2008). Quality control and chemical analysis of food. University of Tehran Publishing and Printing Institute, Tehran, Iran
Poureskandari, E., Soleimani, A., Saba, J. and Taheri M. (2014). Evaluation of pomological traits and classification of some olive cultivars in zanjan province. Seed and Plant Improvement Journal. 29(4): 623-636.
Psomiadou, E. and Tsimidou, M. (2002). Stability of virgin olive oil. 1. Autoxidation studies. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 716-721.
Ranalli, A. and Modesti, G. (1999). Processing technologies and biotechnologies affect the composition of green and yellow lipochromes and the chromatic features of virgin olive oil. In: minguez-Mosquera, M. I., Jaren Gala n, M., Hornero Mendez, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Pigments in Food Technology, Sevilla. 239.
Romero, M.P., Tovar, M.J., Roma, T. and Motilva, M.J. (2003). Effect of crop season on the composition of virgin olive oil with protected designation of origin "Les Garrigues". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 80(5): 423-430.
Sadeghy, H. (2002). Planting and Harvesting of Olive. Amozeshe Keshavarzi Press, 1-19 (In persian).
Sakouhi, F., Harrabi, S., Absalon, C., Sbei, K., Boukhchina, S. and Kallel, H. (2008). α- Tocopherol and fatty acids contents of some Tunisian table olives (Olea europea L.):Changes in their composition during ripening and processing. Food Chemistry. 108: 833–839.
Salta, F.N., Mylona, A., Chiou, A., Boskou, G. and Andrikopoulos, N.K. (2007). Oxidative Stability of Edible Vegetable Oils Enriched in Polyphenols with Olive Leaf Extract. Food Science and Technology International. 13(6): 413-421.
Sisakhtnezhad, S., Sheikhol-Islami, A., Kiani, A., Mohammadi, B., Darzi-Ramandi, M., Parvin, N. and Bahrami G. (2008). Evaluation of the stability of fatty acid content of natural lipid and frying oils available on the Iranian market during frying. Journal of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. 12(4): 343-357.
Sousa, A., Ferreira, I.C.F.R., Calhelha, R., Andrade, P.B., Valentlo, P., Seabra, R., Estevinho, L., Bento, A. and Pereira, J.A. (2006). Phenolics and antimicrobial activity of traditional stoned table olives ‘‘alcaparra’’. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry. 14: 8533-8538.
Vinha, A.F., Ferreres, F., Silva, B.M., Valentao, P., Gonc¸alves, A., Pereria, J.A., Oliveira, M.B., Seabra, R.M. and Andrade, P.B. (2005). Phenolic profiles of Portuquese olive fruits (Olea europaea L.): influences of cultivar and geographical origin. Food Chemistry. 89: 561-568.
Vlahov, G. (1992). Flavonoids in three olive (Olea europaea) fruit varieties during maturation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 58: 157-159.
Wanger, G.J. (1979). Content and vacuole/extra vacuole distribution of neutral sugars free amino acids, and anthocyanins in protoplast. Plant physiology 64:88-93.
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Alavi Rafiee, S., Farhosh, R. and Hadad Khodaparast, M.H. (2013). Physical and chemical characteristics of olive oils Iranian trade. Iranian Journal of Nutrition Science and Food Technology. 7(2): 85-94.
Arsalan, D., Karabekir, Y. and Schreiner, M. (2013). Variations of phenolic compounds, fatty acids and some qualitative characteristics of Sarıulak olive oil as induced by growing area. Food Research International. 54: 1897-1906.
Baccouri, B., Zarrouk, W., Krichene, D., Nouair, I., Ben Youssef, N., Daoud, D. and Zarrouk, M. (2007). Influence of fruit ripening and crop yield on chemical properties of virgin olive oils from seven selected oleasters (Olea europaea L.). Journal of Agronomy. 6(3): 388-396.
Ben Othman, N., Roblain, D., Chammen, N., Thonart, P. and Hamdi, M. (2009). Antioxidant phenolic compounds loss during the fermentation of Chetoui olives. Food Chemistry. 116: 662–669.
Boskou, D. 1996. Olive oil: Chemistry and Technology. AOCS press Champaign, IL, USA.
Boskou, G., Salta, F.N., Chrysostomou, S., Mylona, A., Chiou, A. and Andrikopoulos, N.K. ( 2006). Antioxidant capacity and phenolic profile of table olives from Greek market. Food Chemistry. 94: 558–564.
Ebrahimzade, M.A., Pourmorad, F. and Hafezi, S. ( 2008). Antioxidant activities of iranian corn silk. Turkish Journal of Biology. 32: 43-49.
Ebdali, N., Hoseini Mazinani, M., Atayi, S. and Hoseini, M. (2012). The variation in morphological traits and molecular markers Iranian olive cultivars (RAPD). Iran Biological Science Promotion. 24(6):868-879.
EEC. (2003). Characteristics of olive and olive pomace oils and their analytical methods EEC Regulation. (1989/2003). Official Journal of the European Communities. 298: 57–66.
Fahim Danesh, M. (2001). Evaluation of quality parameters of olive oil used in Iran. Thesis of MSc in Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch. Pp. 23-26.
Farhang Dost, Z., Asadolahi, S. and Zinanlo, E.A. (2014). Evaluate and compare the chemical characteristics of olive oil cultivars Zard, oily, Shenge, including Konservalia and Mary. Journal Management System. 3:23-29.
Fatemi, S.H., and Hammond, E.G. (1980). Analysis of pleate, lonoleate and linolenate hydroperoxides in oxidized ester mixtures. Journal of Lipids. 15:379-385.
Fedeli. E. (1977). Lipids of olive. Progress in the Chemistry of Fats and other Lipids.15:57-74.
Firestone, D.K., Carran, L. and Reina R.J. (1998). Update on control of olive oil adulteration and misbranding in the United States. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 65: 782-788.
Gomez-Rico, A., Fregapane, G. and Desamparados Salvador, M. (2008). Effect of cultivar and ripening on minor components in Spanish olive fruits and their corresponding virgin olive oils. Food Research International. 41: 433-440.
Gutfinger, T. (1981). Polyphenols in olive oils. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society. 58: 966-968.
Hashempour, A., Fotouhi Ghazvini, R., Bakhshi, D. and Asadi Sanam, S. (2011). Kazeron effect of climate on the qualitative indices olive oil. Journal of Crop Production. 41(1): 47-53.
Homapour, M., Hamedi, M., Moslehishad, M. and Safafar, H. (2014). Physical and chemical properties of olive oil extracted from olive cultivars grown in Shiraz and Kazeroon. Iranian Journal of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology. 9(1): 121-130.
International Olive Oil Council Trade standard applying olive oil and olive pomace oils. (2012) COI/T.15/NC n 3.
Iranian National Standard 1446: 1389. Olive oil- Specification and Test methods.
Lavelli, V. 2002. Comparison of the antioxidant activities of extra virgin olive oils. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 7704–7708.
Maestri, D.M., Labuckas, D.O., Meriles, J.M., Lamarque, A.L., Zygadlo, J.A. and Guzman, C.A. (1998). Seed Composition of soybean cultivars evaluated in different environmental conditions. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 77: 494-498.
Maghsodi, SH. (2005). Olive technology and its products. Publication of Agricultural Sciences. Tehran, Iran.
Malheiro, R., Sousa, A., Casal, S., Bento, A. and Pereira, J, A. (2011). Cultivar effect on the phenolic composition and antioxidant potential of stoned table olives. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49: 450-457.
Mania-Djebali, H., Krichene, D., Ouni, Y., Gallardo, L., Sanchez, J., Osorio, E., Daoud, D., Guido, F. and Zarrouk, M. (2012). Chemical profiles of five minor olive oil varieties grown in central Tunisia. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 27: 109-119.
Marsilio, V., Campestre, C. and Lanza, B. ( 2001). Phenolic compounds change during California-style ripe olive processing. Food Chemistry. 74: 55-60.
Mateos, R., and Garcia-Mesa, J.A. )2006(. Rapid and quantitative extraction method for the determination of chlorophylls and carotenoids in olive oil by high performance liquid chromatography. Food Chemistry. 385: 1247-1254.
Minguez-Mosquera, M.I., Rejano, L., Gandul, B., Sanchez, A.H. and Garrido, J. (1991). Color-pigment correlation in virgin olive oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society. 68: 322-337.
Najafian, L., Hadad Khodaparast, M.H. and Ghodsvali, A. (2008). Olive oil extraction from three olive varieties using enzyme processing. Iran Journal of Food Sciences and Technology. 4(1): 45-52.
Nikzad, N., Sahari, M.A., Ghavami, M., Piravi Vanak, Z., Hoseini, S.E., Safafar, H. and Boland Nazar, S.A. (2014). Physico-chemical properties and nutritional indexes of cultivars during table olive processing. Iran Journal of Food Sciences and Technology. 39:31-41.
Ozkaya, M.T., Cakir, E., Gokbayrak, Z., Ercan., H. and Taskin, N. 2006. Morphological and molecular characterization of Derik Halhali olive (Olea europaea L.) accessions grown in Derik–Mardin province of Turkey. Scientia Horticulturae. 108: 205–209.
Padula, G., Giordani, E., Bellini, E., Rosati, A., Pandolfi, S., Paoletti, A., Pannelli, G., Ripa, V., De Rose, F., Perri, E., Buccoliero, A. and Mennone, C. 2008. Field evaluation of new olive (Olea europaea L.) selections and effects of genotype and environment on productivity and fruit characteristics. Advances in Horticultural Science. 22(2): 87-94.
Panizzi, L., Scarpati, M.L. and Oriente, G. (1960). Costituzione dell’oleuropeina, glucoside amaro e ad azione ipotensiva dell’olivo. Nota II. Gazzetta dei Chimici Italiani. 90: 1449-1485.
Parvaneh, V. (2008). Quality control and chemical analysis of food. University of Tehran Publishing and Printing Institute, Tehran, Iran
Poureskandari, E., Soleimani, A., Saba, J. and Taheri M. (2014). Evaluation of pomological traits and classification of some olive cultivars in zanjan province. Seed and Plant Improvement Journal. 29(4): 623-636.
Psomiadou, E. and Tsimidou, M. (2002). Stability of virgin olive oil. 1. Autoxidation studies. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 716-721.
Ranalli, A. and Modesti, G. (1999). Processing technologies and biotechnologies affect the composition of green and yellow lipochromes and the chromatic features of virgin olive oil. In: minguez-Mosquera, M. I., Jaren Gala n, M., Hornero Mendez, D. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1st International Congress on Pigments in Food Technology, Sevilla. 239.
Romero, M.P., Tovar, M.J., Roma, T. and Motilva, M.J. (2003). Effect of crop season on the composition of virgin olive oil with protected designation of origin "Les Garrigues". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 80(5): 423-430.
Sadeghy, H. (2002). Planting and Harvesting of Olive. Amozeshe Keshavarzi Press, 1-19 (In persian).
Sakouhi, F., Harrabi, S., Absalon, C., Sbei, K., Boukhchina, S. and Kallel, H. (2008). α- Tocopherol and fatty acids contents of some Tunisian table olives (Olea europea L.):Changes in their composition during ripening and processing. Food Chemistry. 108: 833–839.
Salta, F.N., Mylona, A., Chiou, A., Boskou, G. and Andrikopoulos, N.K. (2007). Oxidative Stability of Edible Vegetable Oils Enriched in Polyphenols with Olive Leaf Extract. Food Science and Technology International. 13(6): 413-421.
Sisakhtnezhad, S., Sheikhol-Islami, A., Kiani, A., Mohammadi, B., Darzi-Ramandi, M., Parvin, N. and Bahrami G. (2008). Evaluation of the stability of fatty acid content of natural lipid and frying oils available on the Iranian market during frying. Journal of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences. 12(4): 343-357.
Sousa, A., Ferreira, I.C.F.R., Calhelha, R., Andrade, P.B., Valentlo, P., Seabra, R., Estevinho, L., Bento, A. and Pereira, J.A. (2006). Phenolics and antimicrobial activity of traditional stoned table olives ‘‘alcaparra’’. Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry. 14: 8533-8538.
Vinha, A.F., Ferreres, F., Silva, B.M., Valentao, P., Gonc¸alves, A., Pereria, J.A., Oliveira, M.B., Seabra, R.M. and Andrade, P.B. (2005). Phenolic profiles of Portuquese olive fruits (Olea europaea L.): influences of cultivar and geographical origin. Food Chemistry. 89: 561-568.
Vlahov, G. (1992). Flavonoids in three olive (Olea europaea) fruit varieties during maturation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 58: 157-159.
Wanger, G.J. (1979). Content and vacuole/extra vacuole distribution of neutral sugars free amino acids, and anthocyanins in protoplast. Plant physiology 64:88-93.