The Combined Effect of Task Complexity and Task Condition through Collaborative Activities on EFL Learners’ Vocabulary Learning: A Focus on L2 Proficiency
محورهای موضوعی : Applied LinguisticsMokhtar Haghnia 1 , Shaban Najafi karimi 2 , Amir Marzban 3
1 - English Department, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr Branch
2 - Assistant Professor, English language teaching department, Islamic Azad University, Qaemshahr branch
3 - Islamic Azad university, Qaemshahr branch
کلید واژه: L2 Proficiency, Task complexity, Task condition, Vocabulary learning ,
چکیده مقاله :
The present study probed into the combined effect of task complexity and task condition through collaborative activities on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning with a focus on the role of L2 proficiency. To this end, 121 female Iranian EFL learners from Safir Institute in Babol were initially given Oxford Placement Tests (OPTs) to select homogeneous participants in terms of language proficiency. Then, 80 female pre-intermediate and intermediate Iranian EFL learners were selected and randomly divided into four groups: two experimental groups and two control groups. Each group consisted of 20 learners. There were a vocabulary pretest and a posttest. The experimental groups benefited from two complexity tasks, namely a ''fill-in task'' and a ''sentence writing'' task with different derivatives of the words. The two experimental groups were required to perform the tasks collaboratively. However, the control groups were not exposed to any complexity tasks and followed their conventional vocabulary learning individually. Results revealed that task complexity and task condition had a statistically significant impact on the learners’ vocabulary learning in both experimental groups (i.e., pre-intermediate and intermediate) compared with their control group counterparts. Practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.
The present study probed into the combined effect of task complexity and task condition through collaborative activities on EFL learners’ vocabulary learning with a focus on the role of L2 proficiency. To this end, 121 female Iranian EFL learners from Safir Institute in Babol were initially given Oxford Placement Tests (OPTs) to select homogeneous participants in terms of language proficiency. Then, 80 female pre-intermediate and intermediate Iranian EFL learners were selected and randomly divided into four groups: two experimental groups and two control groups. Each group consisted of 20 learners. There were a vocabulary pretest and a posttest. The experimental groups benefited from two complexity tasks, namely a ''fill-in task'' and a ''sentence writing'' task with different derivatives of the words. The two experimental groups were required to perform the tasks collaboratively. However, the control groups were not exposed to any complexity tasks and followed their conventional vocabulary learning individually. Results revealed that task complexity and task condition had a statistically significant impact on the learners’ vocabulary learning in both experimental groups (i.e., pre-intermediate and intermediate) compared with their control group counterparts. Practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.
Abdollahzadeh, S., & Fard Kashani, A. (2011). The effect of task complexity on EFL learners’ narrative writing task performance. Journal of English Language Teaching and Learning, 8, 1–27.
August, D., & Carlo, M., Dressler, C., & Snow, C. (2005). The critical role of vocabulary development for English language learners. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 20, 50–57.
Barry, S., & Lazarte, A. (1998). Evidence for mental models: How do prior knowledge, syntactic complexity and reading topic affect inference generation in a recall task for nonnative readers of Spanish? Modern Language Journal, 86, 176–193.
Beheydt, L. (1987). The semantization of vocabulary in foreign language learning. System, 15(1), 55–67.
Bozorgian, H., Yaqubi, B., & Muhammadpour, M. (2022). Metacognitive intervention and awareness: Listeners with low working memory capacity. International Journal of Listening, 36(3), 221–234.
Brown, G. (1995). Speakers, listeners, and communication. Cambridge University Press.
Carrell, C. L., & Wise, T. E. (1998). The relationship between prior knowledge and topic interest on second language reading. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 20, 285–309.
Cummins, J. (1981a). Age on arrival and immigrant second language learning in Canada: A reassessment. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 132–149.
Cummins, J. (1981b). Empirical and theoretical underpinnings of bilingual education. Journal of Education, 163(1), 16–30.
Cummins, J. (2005). Language proficiency, bilingualism, and academic achievement. In P. A. Richard-Amato & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Fundamentals of teaching English to speakers of other languages in K-12 mainstream classrooms (pp. 76–86). Longman. (Reprinted from Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy (pp. 136–151), by J. Cummins, 1984, College-Hill)
Cummins, J. (2008). BICS and CALP: Empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. In B. Street & N. H. Homberg (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Vol. 2. Literacy (2nd ed., pp. 71–83). Springer.
David, K. (2009). The importance of English language. Free online articles. Dulwich College Beijing. Retrieved on October 29, 2020 from: http://www.saching.com/articles
Day, R. R., Omura, C., & Hiramatsu, M. (1991). Incidental EFL vocabulary learning and reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 7(2), 147–153.
Djiwandono, M. (1996). Tes Bahasa dalam Pengajaran. ITB Press.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. Doughty J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp.197–262). Cambridge University Press.
Dupuy, B., & Krashen, S. D. (1993). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in French as a foreign language. Applied Language Learning, 4(2), 55–63.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (Ed.) (2005). Planning and task performance in a second language. John Benjamin's.
Fleming, S., & Richard, C. (2002). Using animation to help students learn computer. The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Online, 44(3), 495–511.
Gilabert, R. (2005). Task complexity and L2 narrative oral production. (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation), University of Barcelona, Barcelona.
Glover, J. A. (1989). The testing phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 392–399.
Gough, C. (2000). English vocabulary organizer. Language Teaching Publication.
Hakuta, K., Butler, Y., & Witt, D. (2000). How long does it take English learners to attain proficiency? (Policy Report 2000–1). University of California, Linguistic Minority Research Institute.
Hickman, M. (2004). Mnemonic methods in foreign language vocabulary learning: Theoretical considerations and pedagogical implications. In Coady, J. and Huckin, T. (Eds), Second language vocabulary acquisition. Cambridge University Press.
Hulstijn, H. J. (1992). Retention of inferred and given word meanings: Experiments in incidental vocabulary learning’. In Vocabulary and Applied Linguistics. ed. by Arnaud, P., and Bejoint, H. MacMillan 113–125.
Hunt, A. & Beglar, D. (2005). A framework for developing EFL reading vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign Language, 17(1), 32–41.
Javanbakht, Z. O. (2011). The impact of tasks on male Iranian elementary EFL learners’ incidental vocabulary learning. Language Education in Asia, 2(1), 28–42.
Jenkins, J., Stein, M., & Wysocki, K. (1984). Learning vocabulary through reading. American Educational Research Journal, 21, 767–788.
Jimenez, A. (2022). The Effects of L2 Spanish Proficiency and Length of Exposure Abroad in the Expression of Imprecise Quantities. Languages, 7(1), 20.
Joh, J. (2006). What happens when L2 readers recall? Language Research, 42, 205–238.
Kopstein, F. F., & Roshal, S. M. (1994). Method of presenting word pairs as a factor in foreign vocabulary learning. American Psychologist, 10, 1–19.
Kuiken, F., Mos, M., & Vedder, I. (2005). Cognitive task complexity and second language writing performance. Eurosla yearbook, 5(1), 195–222.
Laufer, B. (1997). How much Lexis is necessary for reading comprehension? In Vocabulary and applied linguistics. Ed. by Bejoint, H., and Arnaud, P. (pp.126–132). Macmillan.
Laufer, B. (2001). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In Special Language: From humans thinking to thinking machines [Online] Ed. by Nordman, L. C., and Clevedon. M: (pp.316–323). Multilingual Matters.
Laufer, B., & Paribakht, S. T. (1998). The relationship between passive and active vocabularies: Effects of language learning context. Language Learning, 48(3), 365–391.
Long, M. H., & Crookes, G. (1992). Three approaches to task-based syllabus design. TESOL quarterly, 26(1), 27–56.
Maftoon, P., & Bagheri, B. (2013). No Negotiation, Limited Negotiation, and Extended Negotiation in Proactive Focus on Form in Vocabulary Acquisition. Journal of Language and Translation, 3(1), 7–20.
Mahon, E. A. (2006). High-stakes testing and English language learners: Questions of validity. Bilingual Research Journal, 30(2), 479–497.
Maiguashca, R (1993). Teaching and learning vocabulary in a second language: Past, present, and future directions. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 83–100.
Malmir, A., & Parhizkari, N. (2021). The effect of definition, fill-in-the-blank, and sentence writing exercises on the acquisition, retention, and production of lexical vs. grammatical collocations. Teaching English as a Second Language Quarterly (Formerly Journal of Teaching Language Skills), 40(1), 33–82.
Miralpeix, I., and Muñoz, C. (2018). Receptive vocabulary size and its relationship to EFL language skills. International Review of Applied Linguists Language Teaching. 56, 1–24. http://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2017-0016
Munir, F. (2016). The effectiveness of teaching vocabulary by using cartoon film toward vocabulary mastery of EFL students. Journal of English Language Teaching and Linguistics, 1(1), 13–38.
Naci, M., & Raside, D. (2011). Complexity. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(2), 24–31.
Nagy, W. E., Herman, P. A., & Anderson, R. C. (1985). Learning words from context. Reading Research Quarterly, 20(2), 233–253.
Nassaji, H. (2004). L2 vocabulary learning from context: Strategies, knowledge sources, and their relationship with
success in L2 lexical inferencing. Modern Language Journal, 37, 645–670.
Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge University Press.
Neuman, S. B., & Dwyer, J. (2009). Missing in action: Vocabulary instruction in pre-tasks. The Reading Teacher, 62(5), 384–392.
Neyadi, O. S. (2007). The effects of using games to reinforce vocabulary learning. In K. Gallagher & K. Bashir-Ali (eds.). Action research and initial teacher education in the UAE (pp. 99–107). HCT Press.
Nurhayati, D. (2015). Using picture series to inspire reading comprehension for the second semester students of English department of IAIN Tulungagung. Dinamika Ilmu Journal, 14(2), 176–189.
Paez, M. (2002). Language and the immigrant child: Predicting English language proficiency for Chinese, Dominican, and Haitian students. Dissertation Abstracts International, 62(11), 17–37.
Peters, E. (2007). Manipulating L2 learners' online dictionary use and its effect on L2 word retention.
Pitts, M., White, H., & Krashen, S. (1989). Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading: A replication of the clockwork orange study using second language acquirers. Reading in a Foreign Language, 5, 271–275.
Rivers, W. M. (1981). Teaching foreign language skills. The University of Chicago Press.
Rupley, T. P., & Nichols, M. (2005). Best practice in vocabulary teaching and learning. EA Journal, 13(2), 7–15.
Robinson, P. (2001). Task complexity, cognitive resources and syllabus design: A triadic framework for examining task influences on SLA. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 287–318). Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. (2002). Individual differences and structured language learning. John Benjamins.
Robinson, P. (2003a). Attention and memory during SLA. In: C. Doughty and M. Long, eds. Handbook of second language acquisition. (pp. 631–678). Blackwell.
Robinson, P. (2005). Cognitive complexity and task sequencing: Studies in a componential framework for second language task design. IRAL, 43, 1–32.
Sagarra, N., & Alba, M. (2006). The key is in the keyword: L2 vocabulary learning methods with beginning learners of Spanish. The Modern Language Journal, 90, 228–243.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Instructed second language vocabulary learning. Language Teaching Research, 12, 329–363.
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Palgrave Macmillan.
Schmitt, S., & McCarthy, M. (1997). Vocabulary description, acquisition and pedagogy. Cambridge University Press.
Sercu, L., De Watcher, L., Peters, E., Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2006). The effect of task complexity and task conditions on foreign language development and performance, three experimental studies. ITL, Review of Applied Linguistics, 152, 55–84.
Schmitt, N. (2014). Size and depth of vocabulary knowledge: What the research shows. Language Learning. 64, 913–951. http://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12077
Skehan, P. (2001). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.
Skehan, P., & Foster, P. (1999). The influence of task structure and processing conditions on narrative retellings.
Language Learning, 49(1), 93–120.
Skehan, P., & Foster, P. (2001). Cognition and tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 183–205). Cambridge University Press.
Solorzano, R. W. (2008). High stakes testing: Issues, implications, and remedies for English language learners. Review of Educational Research, 78(2), 260–329.
Suarez-Orozc, C., Suarez-Orozc, M., & Todorova, 1. (2008a). Learning a new land: Immigrant students in American society. Harward University Press.
Sun, D., Chen, Z., & Zhu, S. (2023, November). What affects second language vocabulary learning? Evidence from multivariate analysis. In Frontiers in Education (Vol. 8, p. 1210640). Frontiers.
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. (1997). School effectiveness for language minority students (NCBE Resource Collection Series, No. 9). George Washington University, Center for the Study of Language and Education: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED436087)
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national study of school effectiveness for language minority students’ long-term academic achievement. University of California, Center for Research on Education, Diversity and Excellence.
Urwin, J. (1999). Second language listening task complexity. (Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation), Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
Voltaire, V. (1999). Explicitness, intake, and the issues of awareness: Another piece to the puzzle. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 21, 511–553.
Webb, S. (2008). The effects of context on incidental vocabulary learning. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2), 232–245.
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15, 130–163.
Wilkins, D. (1972). Linguistics in language teaching. Arnold.
Yoko, M. (2007). High-stakes test performance of limited English proficient students in Ohio. Dissertation Abstracts
International, 67(11), 10–23.
Yuan, F., & Ellis, R. (2003). The effects of pre-task planning and on-line planning on fluency, complexity and accuracy in L2 monologic oral production. Applied Linguistics, 24(1), 1–27.
