Functionally Graded Materials: Processing Techniques and Applications
محورهای موضوعی : Journal of Environmental Friendly Materials
A Rabieifar
1
(Advanced Materials Engineering Research Center, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran)
V Abouei Mehrizi
2
(Advanced Materials Engineering Research Center, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran)
M Ghanbari Haghighi
3
(Advanced Materials Engineering Research Center, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran)
کلید واژه:
چکیده مقاله :
Functionally graded materials (FGMs) revealed an immense growth with worldwide demand. This paper describes a brief review of the feasibility of production methods (solid, liquid, and gaseous methods) chosen for FGMs, with the aid of schematic diagrams. Advanced FGM fabrication techniques such as additive manufacturing and laser deposition, which have been gaining importance are also explored. The evolution of fabrication techniques is correlated to the industrial requirements along with their merits and limitations. This review article also highlights some advanced engineering applications observed for FGMs. Comparing various fabrication technologies employed for FGMs, centrifugal casting was the most established and economically feasible method that met vast industrial product demands like hybrid and double-graded FGMs. Powder metallurgy was preferred for bulk gradation in spite of their sharp transitions across layers. Advanced FGM fabrication techniques like additive manufacturing, electrochemical gradation, and laser deposition techniques improved critical production parameters like precision, gradation control, etc. Thermal spraying successfully improved the heat insulation performance of FGMs.
[1] Jojith R, Sam M, Radhika N. Recent advances in tribological behavior of functionally graded composites: A review. Engineering Science and Technology. 2022 Jan 1;25:100999.
[2] Nachimuthu R, Sam M, Thangamayandi AR, Balasubramanian YK, Ranganathan LK. Tribological and mechanical characterization of as-cast and thermal treated Al-9Si/SiC graded composite. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science. 2022;236(14):8092-8107.
[3] Kirlikovali E. Polymer/concrete composites—A review, Polym. Eng. Sci. 1981 june;21(8):507-509.
[4] Niino M. Functionally gradient materials as thermal barrier for space plane. J. Jpn. Composite Mater. 1987;13:257-264.
https://doi.org/10.6089/jscm.13.257
[5] Knoppers GE, Gunnink JW, Van Den Hout J, Van Vliet W. The reality of functionally graded material products. In Intelligent Production Machines and Systems: First I* PROMS Virtual Conference, Elsevier, Amsterdam 2005 Dec 9 (pp. 467-474).
[6] Sriram KK, Radhika N, Sam M, Shrihari S. Studies on adhesive wear characteristics of centrifugally cast functionally graded ceramic reinforced composite. International Journal of Automotive and Mechanical Engineering. 2020 Dec 27;17(4):8274-8282.
[7] Jha DK, Kant T, Singh RK. A critical review of recent research on functionally graded plates. Composite structures. 2013 Feb 1;96:833-849.
[8] Sam M, Radhika N. Influence of carbide ceramic reinforcements in improving tribological properties of A333 graded hybrid composites. Defence Technology. 2022 Jul 1;18(7):1107-1123.
[9] Reichardt A, Shapiro AA, Otis R, Dillon RP, Borgonia JP, McEnerney BW, Hosemann P, Beese AM. Advances in additive manufacturing of metal-based functionally graded materials. International Materials Reviews. 2021 Jan 2;66(1):1-29.
[10] Sasaki M, Hirai T. Fabrication and properties of functionally gradient materials. Journal of the ceramic society of Japan. 1991 Oct 1;99(1154):1002-1013.
https://doi.org/10.2109/jcersj.99.1002
[11] Ebhota WS, Jen TC. Casting and applications of functionally graded metal matrix composites. Advanced Casting Technologies. 2018 May 2;59
(3):71225. https:// doi.org/10.5772/intecopen.71225
[12] Radhika N, Reghunath R, Sam M. Improvement of mechanical and tribological properties of centrifugally cast functionally graded copper for bearing applications. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science. 2019 May;233(9):3208-3219.
[12] Sam M, Jojith R, Radhika N. Progression in manufacturing of functionally graded materials and impact of thermal treatment—A critical review. Journal of Manufacturing Processes. 2021 Aug 1;68:1339-1377.
[13] Prasad PH, Radhika N. Comparative study of microstructure, mechanical and reciprocating wear properties of unmodified and Sr-modified A383 alloy and composite. Transactions of the Indian Institute of Metals. 2020 Jul;73:1939-1950.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-020-02009-4
[14] Chauhan PK, Khan S. Microstructural examination of aluminium-copper functionally graded material developed by powder metallurgy route. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2020 Jan 1;25:833-837.
[15] Cherian RP, Smith LN, Midha PS. A neural network approach for selection of powder metallurgy materials and process parameters. Artificial Intelligence in Engineering. 2000 Jan 1;14(1):39-44.
[16] Vijaya Kumar P, Jebakani D, Velmurugan C, Senthilkumar V. Effect of SiC on mechanical and microstructural characteristics of Al based functionally graded material. Silicon. 2022 Feb 1;14:1247-1252.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-020-00933-0
[17] Kawasaki A, Watanabe R. Evaluation of thermomechanical performance for thermal barrier type of sintered functionally graded materials. Composites Part B: Engineering. 1997 Jan 1;28(1-2):29-35.
[18] Kawasaki A, and Watanable R. Microstructural designing and fabrication of disc shaped Functionally gradient materials by powder metallurgy. Journal of Japan society of power and powder metallurgy 1990;37:253-258.
[19] Mishina H, Inumaru Y, Kaitoku K. Fabrication of ZrO2/AISI316L functionally graded materials for joint prostheses. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2008 Feb 25;475(1-2):141-147.
[20] Yu JH, Wang CB, Shen Q, Zhang LM. Preparation and properties of Sip/Al composites by spark plasma sintering. Materials & Design. 2012 Oct 1;41:198-202.
[21] Lee SH, Tanaka H, Kagawa Y. Spark plasma sintering and pressureless sintering of SiC using aluminum borocarbide additives. Journal of the European Ceramic Society. 2009 Jul 1;29(10):2087-2095.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2008.12.006
[22] Feng H, Meng Q, Zhou Y, Jia D. Spark plasma sintering of functionally graded material in the Ti–TiB2–B system. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2005 Apr 25;397(1-2):92-97.
[23] Watanabe Y, Iwasa Y, Sato H, Teramoto A, Abe K, Miura-Fujiwara E. Microstructures and mechanical properties of titanium/biodegradable-polymer FGM for bone tissue fabricated by spark plasma sintering method. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2011 Dec 1;211(12):1919-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.05.024
[24] Hulbert DM, Jiang D, Anselmi-Tamburini U, Unuvar C, Mukherjee AK. Continuous functionally graded boron carbide-aluminum nanocomposites by spark plasma sintering. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2008 Oct 15;493(1-2):251-255.
[25] Kambe M, Shikata H. Intensive energy density thermoelectric energy conversion system by using FGM compliant pads. Acta Astronautica. 2002 Jul 1;51(1-9):161-171.
[26] Popovich VA, Borisov EV, Popovich AA, Sufiiarov VS, Masaylo DV, Alzina L. Functionally graded Inconel 718 processed by additive manufacturing: Crystallographic texture, anisotropy of microstructure and mechanical properties. Materials & Design. 2017 Jan 15;114:441-449.
[27] Miyamoto Y, Kaysser WA, Rabin BH, Kawasaki A, Ford RG, editors. Functionally graded materials: design, processing and applications. Springer Science & Business Media; 2013 Nov 27.
[28] Kieback B, Neubrand A, Riedel H. Processing techniques for functionally graded materials. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2003 Dec 5;362(1-2):81-106.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(03)00578-1
[29] Srivastava AK, Kumar N, Dixit AR. Friction stir additive manufacturing–An innovative tool to enhance mechanical and microstructural properties. Materials Science and Engineering B. 2021 Jan 1;263:114832.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mseb.2020.114832
[30] Chandrasekaran S, Hari S, Amirthalingam M. Wire arc additive manufacturing of functionally graded material for marine risers. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2020 Aug 5;792:139530.
[31] Marinelli G, Martina F, Lewtas H, Hancock D, Ganguly S, Williams S. Functionally graded structures of refractory metals by wire arc additive manufacturing. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining. 2019 Jul 4;24(5):495-503.
[32] Shen C, Pan Z, Ma Y, Cuiuri D, Li H. Fabrication of iron-rich Fe–Al intermetallics using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process. Additive Manufacturing. 2015 Jul 1;7:20-26.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2015.06.001
[33] Reisgen U, Sharma R, Oster L. Plasma multiwire technology with alternating wire feed for tailor-made material properties in wire and arc additive manufacturing. Metals. 2019 Jul 2;9(7):745-756. https://doi.org/10.3390/met9070745
[34] Shen C, Liss KD, Reid M, Pan Z, Hua X, Li F, Mou G, Huang Y, Dong B, Luo D, Li H. Effect of the post-production heat treatment on phase evolution in the Fe3Ni–FeNi functionally graded material: an in-situ neutron diffraction study. Intermetallics. 2021 Feb 1;129:107032.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intermet.2020.107032
[35] Manu S, Radhika N. Wear and friction study of centrifugally cast functionally graded Cu-Ni-Si alloy and composite. Tribology in Industry. 2020;42(2):268.
[36] Radhika N, Sam M. Tribological and wear performance of centrifuge cast functional graded copper based composite at dry sliding conditions. J. Cent. South Univ. 2019;26, 2961–2973
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-019-4228-y
[37] Sam M, Radhika N. Comparative Study on Reciprocal Tribology Performance of Mono-Hybrid Ceramic Reinforced Al-9Si-3Cu Graded Composites. Silicon (2021);13:2671–2687.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12633-020-00623-x
[38] Nastac L. Numerical modeling of carbide redistribution during centrifugal casting of HSS shell rolls. ISIJ international. 2014 Jun 15;54(6):1294-1303.
[38] Nastac L. Numerical modeling of fluid flow and solidification characteristics of ultrasonically processed A356 alloys. ISIJ International. 2014 Aug 15;54(8):1830-1835.
[39] Swaminathan K, Sangeetha DM. Thermal analysis of FGM plates – A critical review of various modeling techniques and solution methods. Compos Struct. 2017 Jan 15;160:43-60.
[40] Ogawa T, Watanabe Y, Sato H, Kim I, Fukui Y. Theoretical study on fabrication of functionally graded material with density gradient by a centrifugal solid-particle method. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 2006;37(12):2194-2200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2005.10.002
[41] Ebhota WS, Karun AS, Inambao FL. Centrifugal casting technique baseline knowledge, applications, and processing parameters: overview. Int J Mater Res. 2016;107:960–969.
[42] Inaguma Y, Sato H, Watanabe Y. Fabrication of Al-based FGM containing TiO nano-particles by a centrifugal mixed-powder method. Mater Sci Forum. 2009;631–632:441–447.
[43] Chmielewski M, Pietrzak K. Metal–ceramic functionally graded materials: manufacturing, characterization, application. Bull Polish Acad Sci Tech Sci. 2016;64:151–160. https://doi.org/10.1515/bpasts-2016-0017
[44] Rajan TPD, Pai BC, Formation of solidification microstructures in centrifugal cast functionally graded aluminium composites. Trans Indian Inst Met. 2009;62:383–389.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12666-009-0067-0
[45] Janković Ilić D, Fiscina J, González-Oliver CJR, Mücklich F. Properties of Cu-W Functionally Graded Materials Produced by Segregation and Infiltration. MSF. 2005;492–493:123–128.
[46] Ariga K, Yamauchi Y, Mori T, Hill JP. What can be done with the Langmuir-Blodgett method? Recent developments and its critical role in materials science. Advanced Materials. 2013;25(45): 6477-6512.
[47] Hagedorn S, Drolle E, Lorentz H, Srinivasan S, Leonenko Z, Jones L. Atomic force microscopy and Langmuir–Blodgett monolayer technique to assess contact lens deposits and human meibum extracts. Journal of Optometry. 2015;8(3):187-199.
[48] Gayen D, Tiwari R, Chakraborty D. Static and dynamic analyses of cracked functionally graded structural components: a review. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2019;173:106982.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2019.106982
[49] Nallusamy S. Investigations on silicon nitride superimposed nanocoated cutting tool by physical vapor deposition and atomic force microscopy. Applied Nanoscience. 2021;11(4):1107-1115.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-021-01668-z
[50] Rao GM. Gopal AV. Effect of physical vapour deposition coated and uncoated carbide tools in turning aluminium alloy-AA6063. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2021;41(5):1212-1219.
[51] Mortensen A, Suresh S. Functionally graded metals and metal-ceramic composites: Part 1 Processing, International Materials Reviews. (1995);40(6):239-265.
[52] Faraji G, Seop KH, Kashi H. Severe plastic deformation: methods, processing and properties. Elsevier, 2018.
[53] Liu XQ, Wang YS, Zhu J.H. Epoxy resin/polyurethane functionally graded material prepared by microwave irradiation. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2004;94(3):994-999.
[54] Choy KL, Chemical vapor deposition of coatings. Progress in materials science. 2003;48(2): 57-170.
[55] Araki M, Sasaki M, Kim S, Suzuki S, Nakamura K, Akiba M. Thermal response experiments of SiCC and TiCC functionally gradient materials as plasma facing materials for fusion application, J. Nucl. Mater. 1994;212:1329.
[56] Witvrouw A, Mehta A. The Use of Functionally Graded Poly-SiGe Layers for MEMS Applications. Materials Science Forum. Aug;2005;(492–493):255–260.
[57] Pierlot C, Pawlowski L, Bigan M, Chagnon P. Design of experiments in thermal spraying: A review. Surface and Coatings technology. 2008;202(18):4483-4490.
[58] Xiong HP, Kawasaki A, Kang YS, Watanabe R, Experimental study on heat insulation performance of functionally graded metal/ceramic coatings and their fracture behavior at high surface temperatures. Surf.Coat. Technol. 2005;194(2-3):203-214.
[59] Neubrand A, Jedamzik R, Rodel J. Functunally graded materials. Design, Processing and Applications. 1996;233(5):161-245.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-5301-4
[60] Jedamzik, R., Neubrand, A. Rödel J. Functionally graded materials by electrochemical processing and infiltration: application to tungsten/copper composites. Journal of Materials Science. 2000;35:477–486.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004735904984
[61] Bostani B, Parvini Ahmadi N, Yazdani S. Synthesis and Characterization of Functionally Gradient Ni-ZrO2 Composite Coating. Prot Met Phys Chem Surf. 2018;54:222–229. https://doi.org/10.1134/S2070205118020156
[62] Mumtaz KA, Hopkinson N. Laser melting functionally graded composition of Waspaloy® and Zirconia powders. Journal of materials science. 2007;42:7647-7656.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-007-1661-3
[63] Rajesh P, Muraleedharan CV, Komath M. Pulsed laser deposition of hydroxyapatite on titanium substrate with titania interlayer. Journal of Materials Science: Medicine. 2011;22:497-505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-011-4230-x
[64] Naebe M, Shirvanimoghadam K. Functionally graded materials: A review of fabrication and properties. Applied materials today. 2016;5:223-245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2016.10.001
[65] Huang CY, Chen YL. Design and impact resistant analysis of functionally graded Al2O3–ZrO2 ceramic composite. Materials & Design. 2016;91:294-305.
[66] Wang Y, Tan Q, Pu F, Boone D, Zhang M. A review of the application of additive manufacturing in prosthetic and orthotic clinics from a biomechanical perspective. Engineering. 2020;6(11):1258-1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2020.07.019
[67] Jiang X, Yao Y, Tang W, Han D, Zhang L, Zhao K, Wang S, Meng Y. Design of dental implants at materials level: An overview. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 2020;108(8):1634-1661. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.a.36931
[68] Singh H, Dhindaw BK, Metal Matrix Composites: Aluminum. Wiley Encyclopedia of Compos. 2012;8:26-36.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118097298.weoc137
[69] Jung DH, Sharma A, Mayer M, Jung JP. A review on recent advances in transient liquid phase (TLP) bonding for thermoelectric power module.
Reviews on advanced materials science. 2018;53(2)147-160.
https://doi.org/10.1515/rams-2018-0011
[70] Karbalaei Akbari M, Baharvandi HR, Mirzaee O. Fabrication of nano-sized Al2O3 reinforced casting aluminum composite focusing on preparation process of reinforcement powders and evaluation of its properties. Composites Part B: Engineering, 2013;55:426-432.
[71] Carroll BE, Otis RA, Borgonia JP, Suh J, Dillon RP, Shapiro AA, Hofmann DC, Liu ZK, Beese AM. Functionally graded material of 304L stainless steel and 15 inconel 625 fabricated by directed energy deposition: Characterization and thermodynamic modeling. Acta Mater. 2016;108:46-54.
[72] Shah K, Haq I, Khan A, Shah SA, Khan M, Pinkerton AJ, Parametric study of development of Inconel-steel functionally graded materials by laser direct metal deposition. Mater. Des. 2014;54:531-538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2013.08.079
[73] Saleh B, Jiang J, Fathi R, Al-hababi T, Xu Q, Wang L, Song D, Ma A, 30 Years of functionally graded materials: An overview of manufacturing methods, Applications and Future Challenges. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2020;201:108376.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.108376
[74] Mao L, Zeng S, Liu Q, Wang G, He Y. Dynamical mechanics behavior and safety analysis of deep water riser considering the normal drilling condition and hang-off condition. Ocean Engineering, 2020;199:106996.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.106996
[75] Nomura T, Moriguchi H, Tsuda K, Isobe K, Ikegaya A, Moriyama K. Material design method for the functionally graded cemented carbide tool. International Journal of Refractory Metals and Hard Materials.1999;17(6):397-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263-4368(99)00029-3
