تبیین رابطه شهر و سلامت روان با استفاده از تکنیک تحلیل محتوا و نرم افزار MAXQDA

محورهای موضوعی : برنامه ریزی شهری

خاطره مغانی رحیمی ¹ , مصطفی بهزادفر ² , سمانه جلیلی صدرآباد ³

1 - دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد، مهندسی شهرسازی، گرایش برنامه ریزی شهری، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران.
2 - رییس دانشکده معماری و شهرسازی دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران
3 - استادیار، شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران.

تاریخ دریافت : 1400/12/07 تاریخ پذیرش : 1401/10/09 تاریخ انتشار : 1402/05/01

کلید واژه: سلامت روان شهری, تحلیل محتوا, سلامت روان, سلامت شهری, سلامت,

چکیده مقاله :

تبیین رابطه شهر و سلامت روان از الزامات برنامه ریزی و طراحی شهری بوده و برای ارتقا کیفیت زندگی شهرها ضروری است. به همین منظور این پژوهش با هدف تشریح این رابطه انجام شده است. روش تحقیق در این پژوهش مروری بوده و از مطالعات کتابخانهای و تحلیل محتوا بهره میگیرد. نتایج پژوهش حاکی از آن است که شهر هم تأثیرات مستقیمی بر سلامت روان دارد و هم از طریق عوامل استرسزا اجتماعی، کالبدی، محیطی، عوامل متفرقه، عوامل مرتبط با مسکن و حمل و نقل که به ترتیب دارای اهمیت میباشند، منجر به کاهش سلامت روان میشود. البته از طریق کاهش سلامت جسمی نیز بر سلامت روان مؤثر است. سمت روان نیز هم به صورت مستقیم و هم از طریق استرس و سلامت جسمی بر شهر مؤثر است. در نتیجه این دو میتوانند ا میانجی اثرات شهرنشینی بر سلامت روان و اثرات سلامت روان بر شهر باشند.

چکیده انگلیسی:

An accurate understanding of the relationship between mental health and the city is necessary for urban planning and design and is essential for promoting health and quality of life in urban environments. Indeed, a better understanding of the relationship between urbanization and psychological problems may help to develop coping strategies and shape future cities in a better way. The importance of this relationship is such that the World Psychiatric Association has established the Scientific Mental Health Division for further study. But so far, studies on the urban environment and population health have focused mainly on physical health, and mental health has received less attention. Therefore, this study was conducted to summarize previous studies and present a conceptual model showing how the relationship between the city and mental health. The research method in this research is a review, and for data collection from documentary and library studies and for their analysis, the qualitative content analysis method has been used. In fact, this study uses an interpretive approach to analyze library documents and, based on the extracted textual codes, tries to analyze and describe the relationship between the city and mental health. Findings indicate that 25% of researchers in this field consider birth and life in the city as independent factor that reduces mental health. Of course, some other researchers have addressed this issue in more detail and introduced influential urban factors. In fact, social factors, with 44% repetition, are the most critical factors affecting mental health, followed by economic factors, with 13.2% repetition; environmental factors, with 12.4% repetition; various factors, with 10.4% repetition; factors related to Housing with 9.2% repetition, physical factors with 7.6% repetition and transportation-related factors with 3.2% repetition are essential, respectively. Also, population density, with 7.2 per cent repetition and then environmental pollution, with a repetition percentage of 6, are the essential urban factors affecting the mental health of citizens. As a result, thinkers in this field consider social factors such as population density and environmental factors such as environmental pollution as the most important factors reducing the mental health of citizens. As a result, the city has direct effects on mental health as well as through social, economic, and environmental stressors, various factors, housing-related factors, physical factors and transportation, which are essential, respectively, leading to stress and health. Reduces the psyche. Of course, the city also affects mental health by lowering public or physical health because the areas of health and mental health are highly interdependent. Mental health also affects the city, both directly and through stress and public health. As a result, urban stress and physical health can mediate the effects of urbanization on mental health and the impact of mental health on the city. A better understanding of this relationship and the result of mediation and trying to reduce the harmful effects of cities on mental health will significantly help in the development of coping strategies, better planning of future cities and maximizing the benefits of urban life.

منابع و مأخذ:

1. آنامرادنژاد، رحیم بردی. (1395). تحلیلی بر برنامه ریزی فضایی و الگوی توسعه شهر نشینی در ایران. نشریه پژوهش و برنامه ریزی شهری، 7(26)، 93-112.


2. پیمایش ملی سلامت روان، (1399). جلسه استقرار سند سلامت روان استان تهران به صورت مجازی برگزار شد [اخبار]. بازیابی شده در 29 شهریور 1400.


3. گزارش شهرداری تهران، (1390). 40 مداخله درمانی در سند ارتقا سلامت روان جامعه [اخبار]. بازیابی شده در 29 شهریور 1400.


4. Abrahamyan Empson, L., Baumann, P. S., Söderström, O., Codeluppi, Z., Söderström, D., & Conus, P. (2019). Urbanicity: The need for new avenues to explore the link between urban living and psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 14(4), 11-18. Doi:10.1111/eip.12861 


5. Adli, M. (2011). Urban stress and mental health [Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 17.


6. Adli, M., Berger, M., Brakemeier, E. L., Engel, L., Fingerhut, J., Hehl, R., Heinz, A., Mayer, J., Mehran, N., Tolaas, S., Walter, H., Weiland, U., & Stollmann, J. (2016). Neurourbanistik – ein methodischer Schulterschluss zwischen Stadtplanung und Neurowissenschaften. Die Psychiatrie, 13(2), 70–78. Doi: 10.1055/s-0038-1670122


7. Adli, M., & Schondorf, J. (2020). Macht uns die Stadt krank? Wirkung von Stadtstress auf Emotionen, Verhalten und psychische Gesundheit; Does the city make us ill? The effect of urban stress on emotions, behavior, and mental health. Bundesgesundheitsbl, 63(2), 979–986. Doi:10.1007/s00103-020-03185-w 


8. Akins, N. (2022). Stress and the City: The Impacts of City Living and Urbanization on Mental Health. Scripps Senior Theses.


9. Allardyce, J., Boydell, J., Van Os, J., Morrison, G., Castle, D., Murray, R. M., & McCreadie, R. G. (2001) Comparison of the incidence of schizophrenia in rural Dumfries and Galloway and urban Camberwell. Br J Psychiatry, 179(4), 335-344. Doi: 10.1192/bjp.179.4.335


10. Ararat City Council, (2013). Ararat City Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2013-2017 [Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 15.


11. Ayuso-Mateos, J., Vázquez-Barquero, J., Dowrick, C., Lehtinen, V., Dalgard, O., Casey, P., & Wilkinson, G. (2001). Depressive disorders in Europe: Prevalence figures from the ODIN study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179(4), 308-316. Doi:10.1192/bjp.179.4.308


12. Baumann, P. S., Söderström, O., Abrahamyan Empson, L., Söderström, D., Codeluppi, Z., Golay, P., Birchwood, M., & Conus, P. (2019). Urban remediation: a new recovery-oriented strategy to manage urban stress after first-episode psychosis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(3), 273-283. Doi:10.1007/s00127-019-01795-7 


13. Beil, K., & Hanes, D. (2013). The Influence of Urban Natural and Built Environments on Physiological and Psychological Measures of Stress- A Pilot Study. Public Health, 10(4), 1250-1267. Doi: 10.3390/ijerph10041250


14. Bray, , Reece, R., Sinnett, D., Martin, F., & Hayward, R. (2022). Exploring the role of exposure to green and blue spaces in preventing anxiety and depression among young people aged 14–24 years living in urban settings: A systematic review and conceptual framework. Environmental Research, 214(4), 114-121. Doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.114081


15. Burton, I. (1990). Factors in Urban Stress. The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 17(1), 1-14.


16. Buttazzoni, A., Doherty, S., & Minaker, L. (2021). How Do Urban Environments Affect Young People's Mental Health? A Novel Conceptual Framework to Bridge Public Health, Planning, and Neurourbanism. Public Health Rep, 137(1), 48-61. Doi: 10.1177/0033354920982088


17. Caracci, G. (2006). Urban Mental Health: An International Survey. International Journal of Mental Health, 35(1), 39–45. Doi:10.2753/imh0020-7411350103 


18. Caracci, G., & Enrique, M. (2001). Culture and urban mental health. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 24(3), 581–593. Doi:10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70249-5 


19. Caracci, G. (2008). General concepts of the relationship between urban areas and mental health. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 21(4), 385–390. Doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e328303e198 


20. Casey city council, (2017). Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2017-2021 [Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 15.


21. Chinomnso, C. N., Echendu, D. A., & Queencallista, N. (2014). Urbanization and Health, Orient Journal of Medicine, 26(2), 1-8.


22. Coid, J., Zhang, Y., & Li, T. (2020). Urbanicity and psychosis in a chinese undergranduate population: preliminary findings. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 46(1), 85-86. doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbaa030.444


23. Colodro-Conde, L., Couvy-Duchesne, B., Whitfield, J. B., Streit, F., Gordon, S., Kemper, K. E. & Martin, N. G. (2018). Association between population density and genetic risk for schizophrenia. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(9), 901-910. Doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1581


24. Corcoran, R., Mansfield, R., Giokas, T., Hawkins, A., Bamford, L., & Marshall, G. (2017). Places Change Minds: Exploring the Psychology of Urbanicity Using a Brief Contemplation Method. SAGE Open, 7(2), 3-9. Doi:10.1177/2158244017707004  


25. Cyril, S., Oldroyd, J. C., & Renzaho, A. (2013). Urbanisation, urbanicity, and health: a systematic review of the reliability and validity of urbanicity scales. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 513-519. Doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-513


26. D’Acci, L. S. (2020). Urbanicity mental costs valuation: a review and urban-societal planning consideration. Mind Soc, 19(4), 223–235. Doi:10.1007/s11299-020-00235-3


27. Danielle, C., Ompad, S. G., & David, V. (2017). Urban health systems: an overview. In International Encyclopedia of Public Health, 6(24), 311–317. 


28. Dekker, J., Peen, J., Koelen, J., Smit, F., & Schoevers, R. (2008). Psychiatric disorders and urbanization in Germany. BMC Public Health, 8(1), 17–0. Doi:10.1186/1471-2458-8-17 


29. Desai, N. G., Tiwari, S. C., Nambi, S., Shah, B., Singh, R. A., Kumar, D., Trivedi, J. K., Palaniappan, V., Tripathi, A., Pali, C., Pal, N., Maurya, A., & Mathew, M. (2004). Urban mental health services in India: how complete or incomplete? Indian J Psychiatry, 46(3):195-212.


30. DeVylder, J. E., Kelleher, I., Lalane, M., Oh, H., Link, B. G., & Koyanagi, A. (2018). Association of Urbanicity with Psychosis in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(7), 678-686. Doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.0577 


31. Douglas, I. (2015). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being. In: Scott A. E. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09206-x.


32. Dykas, M. J., Goplen, J., Ewart, C. K., & Gump, B. B. (2021). Early Adolescents’ Risk Taking Propensity, Urban Stress, and Affiliation With Risky Peers. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 41(5), 683-699. Doi:1177/0272431620939192


33. Elsamahy, E. M., & Abd EL-Fattah, R. (2018). Designing non-stressed psychological public spaces. BAU Journal: Health & Well-Being, 1(3), 121-132.


34. Evans, B. E., van der Ende, J., Greaves-Lord, K. & et al. (2020a). Urbanicity, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis functioning, and behavioral and emotional problems in children: a path analysis. BMC Psychol, 8(12), 1-24. Doi:10.1186/s40359-019-0364-2


35. Evans, B. E., Buil, J., Marieke, B., William, J., Cillessen, A. H. N., & van Lier, P. A. C. (2018). Urbanicity is Associated with Behavioral and Emotional Problems in Elementary School-Aged Children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(4), 2193-2205. Doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1062z 


36. Evans, B. E., Huizink, A. C., Greaves-Lord, K., Tulen, J. H. M., Roelofs, K., van der Ende, J., & Santana, G. L. (2020b). Urbanicity, biological stress system functioning and mental health in adolescents. PLOS ONE, 15(3), 1-24. Doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0228659 


37. Evans, G. W., Wells, N. M., & Moch, A. (2003). Housing and Mental Health: A Review of the Evidence and a Methodological and Conceptual Critique. Journal of Social Issues, 59(3), 475–500. Doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00074 


38. Faris, R. E. L., & Dunham, H. W. (1939). Mental disorders in urban areas: an ecological study of schizophrenia and other psychoses. Univ. Chicago Press.


39. Freudenberg, N. (2000). Health Promotion in the City: A Review of Current Practice and Future Prospects in the United States. Annual Review of Public Health, 21(1), 473–503. Doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.21.1.473 


40. Galea, S., Freudenberg, N., & Vlahov, D. (2005). Cities and population health. Soc Sci Med, 60(5), 1017–1033. Doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.036  


41. Generaal, E., Hoogendijk, E. O., Stam, M., Henke, C. E., Rutters, F., Oosterman, M., Huisman, M., Kramer, S. E., Elders, P. J. M., Timmermans, E. J., Lakerveld, J., Koomen, E., Ten Have, M., De Graaf, R., Snijder, M. B., Stronks, K., Willemsen, G., Boomsma, D. I., Smit, J. H., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2019). Neighbourhood characteristics and prevalence and severity of depression: pooled analysis of eight Dutch cohort studies. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 215(2), 1–8. Doi:10.1192/bjp.2019.100 


42. Gruebner, O., Rapp, M. A., Adli, M., Kluge, U., Galea, S., & Heinz, A. (2017). Cities and mental health. Dtsch Arztebl Int, 114(2), 121–7. Doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2017.0121 


43. Gu, J., Liu, H., & Lu, H. (2022). Can Even a Small Amount of Greenery Be Helpful in Reducing Stress? A Systematic Review. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(16), 9778-9788. Doi:10.3390/ijerph19169778


44. Haddad, L., Schafer, A., Streit, F., Lederbogen, F., Grimm, O., Wust, S., Deuschle, M., Kirsch, P., Tost, H., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2015). Brain Structure Correlates of Urban Upbringing, an Environmental Risk Factor for Schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(1), 115–122. Doi:10.1093/schbul/sbu072 


45. Harrison, G., Fouskakis, D., Rasmussen, F., Tynelius, P., Sipos, A., & Gunnell, D. (2003). Association between psychotic disorder and urban place of birth is not mediated by obstetric complications or childhood socio-economic position: a cohort study. Psychological Medicine, 33(4), 723–731. Doi:10.1017/s0033291703007591


46. Heinz, A., Deserno, L., & Reininghaus, U. (2013). Urbanicity, social adversity and psychosis. World Psychiatry, 12(3), 187–197. Doi:10.1002/wps.20056 


47. Helbich, M. (2018). Toward dynamic urban environmental exposure assessments in mental health research. Environmental Research, 161(4), 129–135. Doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2017.11.006


48. Hill T.D., & Maimon D. (2013) Neighborhood Context and Mental Health. In: Aneshensel C.S., Phelan J.C., Bierman A. (eds) Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health. Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research. Springer, Dordrecht. Doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-4276-5_23


49. Ho, M., & Chiu, Y. (2022). Evaluating Stress Relief from Architecture: A Case Study Based on Buildings in Taiwan, China and Japan. Sustainability, 13(3), 7899-7903. Doi: 10.3390/su13147899


50. Huber, M., Knottnerus, J. A., Green, L., Horst, H., Jadad, A. R., Kromhout, D., Leonard, B., Lorig, K., Loureiro, M. I., Meer, J. W. M., Schnabel, P., Smith, R., Weel, C., & Smid, H. (2011). How should we define health? BMJ, 343(4), 4163–4163. Doi:10.1136/bmj.d4163 


51. Jevtic, M. (2020). Building capacity for public urban mental health – example of Reflecting Citizens workshops. European Journal of Public Health, 30(5), 358-368. Doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckaa165.975


52. Joshua, C. F., Freeman, C., & Bazargan-Hejazi, S. (2019). Environmental Interventions for Physical and Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities for Greater Los Angeles. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 2180–2186. Doi:10.3390/ijerph16122180 


53. Kennedy, D. P., & Adolphs, R. (2011). Social neuroscience: Stress and the city. Nature, 474(7352), 452–453. 


54. Kirkbride, J. B., Keyes, K. M., Susser, E. (2018). City Living and Psychotic Disorders-Implications of Global Heterogeneity for Theory Development. JAMA Psychiatry, 75(12), 1211-1212. Doi:10.1038/474452a


55. Knight, B. G., & Lee, (2007). Mental Health. Encyclopedia of Gerontology, 3(4), 159-166. Doi.org/10.1016/B0-12-370870-2/00124-4


56. Knöll, M., Neuheuser, K., Cleff, T., & Rudolph-Cleff, A. (2017). A tool to predict perceived urban stress in open public spaces. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 45(4). Doi:10.1177/0265813516686971 


57. Knox city council, (2021). Knox Mental Health Action Plan 2021– 2025 [Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 15.


58. Koene, M. (2018). Urban Stress, Research into the reduction of urban stress through urban design. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 16.


59. Kovess-Masféty, V., Alonso, J., De Graaf, R., & Demyttenaere, K. (2005). A European Approach to Rural-Urban Differences in Mental Health: The ESEMeD 2000 Comparative Study. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 50(14), 926–936. Doi:10.1177/070674370505001407 


60. Krabbendam, L., & van Os, j. (2005). Schizophrenia and Urbanicity: A Major Environmental Influence-Conditional on Genetic Risk. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 31(4), 795-799. Doi:10.1093/schbul/sbi060


61. Kyriakou, K., Resch, B., Sagl, G., Petutschnig, A., Werner, C., Niederseer, D., Liedlgruber, M., Wilhelm, F., Osborne, T., & Pykett, J. (2019). Detecting Moments of Stress from Measurements of Wearable Physiological Sensors. Sensors, 19(17), 3805-3811. Doi:10.3390/s19173805 


62. Larcombe, D., Eddie, V., Logan, A., & Horwitz, P. (2019). High-Rise Apartments and Urban Mental Health-Historical and Contemporary Views. Challenges, 10(2), 34-40. Doi:10.3390/challe10020034 


63. Lecic-Tosevski, D. (2019). Is urban living good for mental health? Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 32(3), 204-209. Doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000489 


64. Lederbogen, F., Haddad, L., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2013). Urban social stress-Risk factor for mental disorders. The case of schizophrenia. Environmental Pollution, 183(4), 2–6. Doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2013.05.046 


65. Lee, C. K., Kwak, Y. S., Yamamoto, J., Rhee, H., Kim, Y. S., Han, J. H., Choi, J. O., & Lee, Y. H. (1990). Psychiatric Epidemiology in Korea. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 178(4), 247-252. Doi: 10.1097/00005053-199004000-00004


66. Lewis, G., & Booth, M. (1994). Are cities bad for your mental health? Psychological Medicine, 24(4), 913-915. Doi:10.1017/S0033291700029007


67. Lewis, G., David, A., Andréassson, S., & Allebeck, P. (1992). Schizophrenia and city life. The Lancet, 340(8812), 137–140. Doi:10.1016/0140-6736(92)93213-7 


68. Li, J., & Rose, N. (2017). Urban social exclusion and mental health of China’s rural-urban migrants - A review and call for research. Health & Place, 48(4), 20–30. Doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2017.08.009 


69. Li, J., Liu, Z. (2018). Housing stress and mental health of migrant populations in urban China. Cities, 81(2), 172-179. Doi:10.1016/j.cities.2018.04.006 


70. Lisa, R., & Ash, A. (2019). Mental health, subjectivity and the city: an ethnography of migrant stress in Shanghai. International Health, 11(4), 7-13. Doi:10.1093/inthealth/ihz029


71. Litman, T. A. (2021). Urban Sanity Understanding Urban Mental Health Impacts and How to Create Saner. Happier Cities.


72. Lloyd, S., Kelly, R., Kimberly, G., & Joshua, R. (2005). Challenges of Urban Mental Health Disaster Planning. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 10(3), 695–706. Doi:10.1300/J146v10n03_03 


73. Manning, N. (2018). Sociology, biology and mechanisms in urban mental health. Social Theory & Health, 17(3), 1-22. Doi:10.1057/s41285-018-00085-7 


74. Marcelis, M., Navarro-Mateu, F., Murray, R., Selten, J. P., & Van Os, J. (1998). Urbanization and psychosis: a study of 1942–1978 birth cohorts in The Netherlands. Psychological Medicine, 28(4), 871–879.  Doi:10.1017/s0033291798006898


75. Mari, J. (2020). Mental health in big cities. Editorial. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 33(3), 231–232. Doi:10.1097/yco.0000000000000599


76. Maureen, O. (CNN). (2017). Revealed: The world's least stressful cities [News]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 17.


77. McEwen, B. S., & E. Stellar. (1993). Stress and the individual Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine 153(4), 2093–2101.


78. McGrath, J., Saha, S., Welham, J. & et al. (2004). A systematic review of the incidence of schizophrenia: the distribution of rates and the influence of sex, urbanicity, migrant status and methodology. BMC Med, 2(13). Doi: 10.1186/1741-7015-2-13


79. McPherson, K. E., Kerr, S., McGee, E. & et al. (2014). The association between social capital and mental health and behavioural problems in children and adolescents: an integrative systematic review. BMC Psychol, 2(7), 7-12. Doi: 10.1186/2050-7283-2-7


80. Miles, R., Coutts, C., & Mohamadi, A. (2012). Neighborhood Urban Form, Social Environment, and Depression. J Urban Health, 89(1), 1–18. doi:10.1007/s11524-011-9621-2 


81. Miller, K. M., & Phillips, M. H. (2005). Correlates of Urban Stress and Mental Health: The Impact of Social Context on Resilience. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 14(1-2), 46-64. Doi:10.1179/105307805807066301 


82. Moreland city council, (2017). Moreland municipal public health and wellbeing plan 2017- 2021[Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 16.


83. Northern grampians city council, (2017). Northern grampians Municipal Public Health and Wellbeing Plan 2017-2021[Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 16.


84. Okkels, N., Kristiansen, C. B., & Munk-Jørgensen, P. (2018).  Mental Health and Illness Worldwide, Mental Health and Illness in the City. Urban Design and Mental Health, 12(3), 421-444. Doi:10.1007/978-981-10-2327-9_12 


85. Paykel, E. S., Abbott, R., Jenkins, R., Brugha, T. S., Meltzer, H. (2000). Urban–rural mental health differences in Great Britain: findings from the National Morbidity Survey. Psychological Medicine, 30(2), 269–280. Doi:10.1017/s003329179900183x 


86. Pedersen, C. B. (2001). Evidence of a Dose-Response Relationship Between Urbanicity During Upbringing and Schizophrenia Risk. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(11), 1039–1046. Doi:10.1001/archpsyc.58.11.1039 


87. Pedersen, C. B., & Mortensen, P. B. (2006). Are the Cause(s) Responsible for Urban-Rural Differences in Schizophrenia Risk Rooted in Families or in Individuals? American Journal of Epidemiology, 163(11), 971–978. Doi:10.1093/aje/kwj169


88. Peen, J., Schoevers, R. A., Beekman, A. T., & Dekker, J. (2010). The current status of urban-rural differences in psychiatric disorders. Acta psychiatrica Scandinavica, 121(2), 84–93. Doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x 


89. Peen, J., Dekker, J., Schoevers, R. A., Have, M. T., Graaf, R., & Beekman, A. T. (2007). Is the prevalence of psychiatric disorders associated with urbanization? Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 42(12), 984–989. doi:10.1007/s00127-007-0256-2 


90. Pykett, J., Osborne, T., Resch, B. (2020b). From Urban Stress to Neurourbanism: How Should We Research City Well-Being? Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 110(6), 1–16. doi:10.1080/24694452.2020.1736982 


91. Quah, S. R. (2018). Reference Module in Biomedical Sciences, Disability, Illness and Health Risks: Public Health and Epidemiology Approaches. Oxford Academic.Doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-801238-3.66190-1


92. Rishi, P., & Khuntia, G. (2012). Urban Environmental Stress and Behavioral Adaptation in Bhopal City of India. Urban Studies Research, 2(8), 1–9. Doi:10.1155/2012/635061 


93. Rohrer, J. E., Borders, T. F., & Blanton, J. (2005). Rural residence is not a risk factor for frequent mental distress: a behavioral risk factor surveillance survey. BMC Public Health, 5(1), 46–0. Doi:10.1186/1471-2458-5-46 


94. Sampson, L., Ettman, C. K., & Galea, S. (2020). Urbanization, urbanicity, and depression. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 33(3), 233–244. Doi:10.1097/YCO.0000000000000588


95. Schelin, E. M., Munk-Jørensen, P., & Olesen, A. V., Gerlach, J. (2000). Regional differences in schizophrenia incidence in Denmark. 101(4), 293–299. Doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.101004293.x


96. Scully, C. (2014). Scully's Medical Problems in Dentistry. Mental health, 1(2), 294–322. Doi:10.1016/b978-0-7020-5401-3.00010-2 


97. Seth, P., Murray, C. C., Braxton, N. D., & DiClemente, R. J. (2012). The Concrete Jungle: City Stress and Substance Abuse among Young Adult African American Men. Journal of Urban Health, 90(2), 307–313. Doi:10.1007/s11524-012-9716-4 


98. Shu, Y., Wu, C., & Zhai, Y. (2022). Impacts of Landscape Type, Viewing Distance, and Permeability on Anxiety, Depression, and Stress. International journal of environmental research and public health, 19(16), 9867-9873. Doi:10.3390/ijerph19169867


99. Srole, L. (1972). Urbanization and Mental Health: Some Reformulations: Anti-city biases of the past century are critically examined in the light of recent research evidence. American Scientist, 60(5), 576-583.


100. Stephens, C. (2017). International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Global Issues: Urban Health in Developing Countries, 3(2), 282–291. Doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803678-5.00480-X


101. Streit, F., Haddad, L., Paul, T., Frank, J., Schäfer, A., Nikitopoulos, J., Akdeniz, C., Lederbogen, F., Treutlein, J., Witt, S., Meyer-Lindenberg, A., Rietschel, M., Kirsch, P., & Wüst, S. (2014). A functional variant in the neuropeptide S receptor 1 gene moderates the influence of urban upbringing on stress processing in the amygdala. Stress, 17(4), 352–361. Doi: 10.3109/10253890.2014.921903


102. Sundquist, K., Frank, G., & Sundquist, J. (2004). Urbanisation and incidence of psychosis and depression: Follow-up study of 4.4 million women and men in Sweden. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 184(4), 293–298. doi:10.1192/bjp.184.4.293 


103. Toulopoulou, T., Picchioni, M., Mortensen, P. B., & Petersen, L. (2017). IQ, the Urban Environment, and Their Impact on Future Schizophrenia Risk in Men. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(5), 1056–1063. Doi: 10.1093/schbul/sbw147


104. van Os, J., Pedersen, C. B., & Mortensen, P. B. (2004). Confirmation of Synergy Between Urbanicity and Familial Liability in the Causation of Psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 161(12), 2312–2314. Doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.161.12.2312 


105. Vargas, T., Conley, R. E., & Mittal, V. A. (2020). Chronic stress, structural exposures and neurobiological mechanisms: A stimulation, discrepancy and deprivation model of psychosis. In A. Clow, & N. Smyth (Eds.), International Review of Neurobiology. International Review of Neurobiology, 152(4), 41-69. Doi:10.1016/bs.irn.2019.11.004


106. Vassos, E., Agerbo, E., Mors, O., & Pedersen, C. B. (2016). Urban-rural differences in incidence rates of psychiatric disorders in Denmark. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 208(5), 435–440. Doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.114.161091


107. Ventriglio, A., Torales, J., Castaldelli-Maia, J. M., De Berardis, D., & Bhugra, D. (2020). Urbanization and emerging mental health issues. CNS Spectrums, 26(1), 1–8. Doi:10.1017/S1092852920001236  


108. Vojnovic, I., Pearson, A., Asiki, G., Allen, A., & DeVerteuil, G. (Eds.). (2019). Handbook of Global Urban Health (1st ed.). Routledge. Doi:10.4324/9781315465456.


109. Vujcic, M., Tomicevic-Dubljevic, J., Grbic, M., Lecic-Tosevski, D., Vukovic, O., & Toskovic, O. (2017). Nature based solution for improving mental health and well-being in urban areas. Environmental Research, 158(316), 385–392. Doi:10.1016/j.envres.2017.06.030 


110. Wandersman, A., & Nation, M. (1998) Urban neighborhoods and mental health. Psychological contributions to understanding toxicity, resilience, and interventions. Am Psychol, 53(6), 647-56.


111. Wang, J. (2004). Rural–urban differences in the prevalence of major depression and associated impairment. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 39(1), 19–25. Doi:10.1007/s00127-004-0698-8


112. Waqar, H. (2019). Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Among Urban and Rural Police Officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 35, 443-447. Doi:10.1007/s11896-019-09358-x 


113. Webb, S. D., & Collette, J. (1977). Rural-Urban Differences in the Use of Stress-Alleviative Drugs. American Journal of Sociology, 83(3), 700–707. Doi:10.1086/226600


114. Weich, S., Twigg, L., & Lewis, G. (2006). Rural/non-rural differences in rates of common mental disorders in Britain: Prospective multilevel cohort study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 188(1), 51-57. Doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.008714


115. Wing, J. (1966). Community and Schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 112(489), 862-862. doi:10.1192/bjp.112.489.862


116. World Health Organization, (2013). The European Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2020 [Web log comment]. Retrieved 2021, Dec. 15.


117. Xie, S. (2019). Quality matters: housing and the mental health of rural migrants in urban China. Housing Studies, 34(9), 1–23. Doi:10.1080/02673037.2019.1577956


118. Zannas, A.S., Arloth, J., & Carrillo-Roa, T. et al. (2015). Lifetime stress accelerates epigenetic aging in an urban, African American cohort: relevance of glucocorticoid signaling. Genome Biol, 16(1), 266- 270. Doi: 10.1186/s13059-015-0828-5