عصر مفرغِ جدیدِ زاگرس مرکزی و میان پرده ظروف خابور
محورهای موضوعی : باستانشناسی پیش از تاریخ
1 - گروه باستانشناسی، واحد ایلام، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، ایلام، ایران.
کلید واژه: عصر مفرغ جدید, زاگرس مرکزی, گودین پسا III2, ظروف خابور, میتانی. ,
چکیده مقاله :
ناحیه زاگرس مرکزی، پس از سپری کردن یک دوره پیشرفت تدریجی، در عصر مفرغ میانه به انسجام و پیوستگی فرهنگی قابل توجهی رسید، زندگی یکجانشینی گسترش محسوسی یافت، جمعیت آن به اوج خود رسید و در مناطق مختلف این ناحیه محوطههای مرکزی مانند گودین، گیریران و باباجان توسعه یافتند. با شروع عصر مفرغ جدید، تغییرات و ناپایداریهای فرهنگی محسوسی سراسر زاگرس مرکزی را در بر گرفت و انسجام و پیوستگی فرهنگی پیشین دگرگون شد. با اینحال، تاکنون دامنه تغییرات مذکور تبیین نشده است و چارچوب آن روشن نشده و ماهیت آن مورد تحقیق قرار نگرفته است. هدف اصلی این پژوهش تبیین اوضاع فرهنگی عصر مفرغ جدید زاگرس مرکزی و تشریح مهمترین تغییرات فرهنگی است که در این دوره در این ناحیه رخ داد. در این راستا، تلاش میشود تا ماهیت تغییر و تحولات فرهنگی مذکور به بوته تحقیق گذاشته شود. در این پژوهش با بهرهگیری از نتایج فعالیتهای میدانی جدید و همچنین مطالعات کتابخانهای نتایج مطالعات میدانی قدیم و به شیوه توصیفی تحلیلی، اوضاع فرهنگی زاگرس مرکزی در دوره مورد نظر، مورد مطالعه، تجزیهوتحلیل و ارزیابی قرار میگیرد. یافتههای باستانشناسی حاکی از این است که در عصر مفرغ جدید بسیاری از محوطههای شناخته شده قبلی در زاگرس مرکزی، متروکه شدند، زندگی یکجانشینی دچار افت کاملاً محسوسی شد. قبرستانهای پراکنده در سراسر این ناحیه گسترش یافت. بعلاوه در این زمان، شاهد رواج مجموعه سفالهای جدیدی هستیم که در عین این که تفاوتهای مهمی با سنت سفال منقوش پیشین دارد، دارای قرابتهای سبکشناسی نزدیکی با ظروف خابور متأخر است. به نظر میرسد که تغییر و تحولات مذکور متأثر از ظهور پادشاهی میتانی است. احتمالاً همزمان با اوجگیری حکومت میتانی و توسعه زندگی دامداری در سرزمینهای استپی آن امپراطوری، قسمتی از گروههای دامدار آن سرزمین، دامنه چراگاهگردی خود را تا مناطق زاگرس مرکزی گسترش دادند. البته میتوان گفت که دامنه نفوذ گروههای دامدار مذکور خیلی گسترده نبود و احتمالاً دوام نیاورد. با اینحال، نفوذ آنها، تأثیرات گستردهای در زاگرس مرکزی از خود برجای گذاشت.
After a period of gradual progress, the Central Zagros region achieved significant cultural cohesion and continuity in the Middle Bronze Age. Settlements expanded significantly, its population reached its peak, and central sites such as Godin, Giriran, and Babajan developed in different parts of this region. With the beginning of the Late Bronze Age, significant cultural changes and instability covered the entire Central Zagros, and the previous cultural cohesion and continuity was transformed. However, the scope of the aforementioned changes has not been explained, its framework has not been clarified, and its nature has not been investigated. The main goal of this research is to explain the cultural situation of the Late Bronze Age of the Central Zagros and to describe the most important cultural changes that occurred in this region. In this regard, an attempt is made to investigate the nature of the aforementioned cultural changes and developments. In this research, using the results of new field activities as well as library studies of the results of old field studies and using a descriptive-analytical method, the cultural situation of the Central Zagros in the period in question is studied, analyzed, and evaluated. Archaeological findings indicate that in the Late Bronze Age, many of the previously known sites in the Central Zagros were abandoned, and settlements declined significantly. Scattered cemeteries spread throughout the region. In addition, at this time, we witness the prevalence of a new pottery collection that, while having important differences from the earlier painted pottery tradition, has close stylistic affinities with the late Khabur ware. It seems that the aforementioned changes and developments were influenced by the emergence of the Mitanni kingdom. Probably, with the appearance of the Mitanni government and the development of pastoral life in the steppe lands of that empire, some of the pastoral groups of that land expanded their pastoral nomadic range to the Central Zagros regions. Of course, it can be said that the range of influence of the aforementioned pastoral groups was not very wide and probably did not last. However, their influence left widespread effects in the Central Zagros.
- Introduction
The Central Zagros has long occupied a pivotal position in Iranian archaeological studies due to its strategic geographical location, ecological diversity, and sustained cultural interactions with adjacent regions. Situated along the major east–west communication corridor linking the Iranian Plateau with Susiana and Mesopotamia, the Central Zagros functioned as a crucial zone of cultural mediation throughout prehistory. During the Bronze Age, this region emerged as a distinct cultural sphere, displaying a remarkable degree of internal coherence and continuity, particularly during the period conventionally known as Godin III (ca. 2600–1400 BCE).
Among the phases of Godin III, the main developmental stages (III6, III5, III4, III2, and Post-III2) represent the most significant cultural expressions of the Central Zagros Bronze Age. Excavations at Godin Tepe have provided a well-stratified sequence that allows for the reconstruction of long-term ceramic traditions, settlement dynamics, and socio-cultural processes. The monochrome painted pottery tradition associated with Godin III constitutes the most enduring and widespread ceramic tradition of the Central Zagros, persisting for nearly a millennium and forming the backbone of regional cultural homogeneity.
However, at the onset of the Late Bronze Age—contemporaneous with the Post-III2 phase—a profound transformation becomes evident. The long-standing cultural stability and gradual evolution observed during earlier Godin III phases were abruptly disrupted. Settlement abandonment, the disappearance of architectural remains, drastic changes in ceramic assemblages, and the predominance of burial contexts signal a major restructuring of socio-cultural systems across the region. Unlike earlier periods characterized by extensive habitation layers, the Post-III2 phase is primarily represented by stratified burial deposits, most notably at Godin Tepe and Giyan Tepe.
One of the most striking features of this transformation is the emergence of ceramic forms and decorative styles that exhibit clear stylistic affinities with Late Khabur Ware traditions of northern Mesopotamia and northern Syria. These connections suggest that the cultural changes observed in the Central Zagros were not isolated phenomena but were embedded within broader interregional dynamics affecting western Asia during the early second millennium BCE.
Despite the significance of these transformations, the Late Bronze Age of the Central Zagros has remained understudied, and no comprehensive synthesis has previously addressed the nature, extent, and underlying causes of these changes. This study aims to fill this gap by systematically examining the cultural landscape of the Central Zagros during the Late Bronze Age, focusing on the Post-III2 assemblages, and by exploring the nature of cultural discontinuity and transformation within a regional and interregional framework.
- Methodology
This research adopts a descriptive–analytical methodology grounded in a comprehensive reassessment of both legacy excavation data and recent archaeological investigations. The primary dataset consists of stratified Post-III2 cultural materials from Godin Tepe, which provide the most reliable and well-documented assemblage for the Late Bronze Age in the Central Zagros. These materials are analyzed in conjunction with comparative data from contemporaneous sites such as Giyan, Baba Jan, Gurān, Chia Sabz, and Lesser Luristan contexts.
The study integrates ceramic typology, stylistic and technological analysis, settlement pattern assessment, and burial assemblage evaluation. Special emphasis is placed on comparative analysis with Khabur Ware traditions, drawing upon published corpora from northern Mesopotamia and Syria. Spatial distribution patterns and quantitative site frequencies are used to assess demographic and settlement changes.
By synthesizing archaeological evidence from habitation, mortuary contexts, and regional surveys, the study seeks to reconstruct the cultural trajectory of the Central Zagros during the Late Bronze Age and to evaluate competing hypotheses regarding cultural disruption, population mobility, and interregional interaction.
- Discussion
3.1. Transformation of the Ceramic Assemblage
The most conspicuous cultural change in the Late Bronze Age Central Zagros is the abrupt transformation of the ceramic assemblage. The Post-III2 pottery shows a clear discontinuity with the Godin III ceramic tradition. Diagnostic forms such as tripods and egg-shaped jars with applied shoulder bands—hallmarks of Godin III2—are entirely absent from Post-III2 contexts. Instead, the assemblage is dominated by small, lightweight, and highly standardized drinking vessels, primarily recovered from burial contexts.
Two principal categories of pedestal goblets characterize this phase. The first group comprises finely made goblets with curvilinear profiles and elaborate monochrome painted decoration, often featuring stylized birds, solar motifs, and geometric elements arranged within framed panels. These vessels closely parallel Late Khabur Ware forms and motifs, particularly those associated with Khabur Phase III. The second group includes goblets with angular or cylindrical bodies decorated exclusively with horizontal painted bands—a defining feature of Khabur Ware. These vessels appear widely distributed across the Central Zagros and represent one of the most diagnostic markers of the Late Bronze Age in the region.
The limited range of ceramic forms and the absence of large storage and cooking vessels suggest that the Post-III2 assemblage does not represent a complete domestic inventory. Rather, it reflects a selective mortuary assemblage emphasizing symbolic and ritual functions, particularly related to drinking practices.
3.2. Settlement Abandonment and the Rise of Mobility
Equally significant is the near-total disappearance of permanent settlements during the Late Bronze Age. Major Middle Bronze Age centers such as Godin, Giyan, Baba Jan, and likely Giriran were abandoned, and no site has yielded a continuous occupational sequence bridging Godin III2 and the Iron Age. The archaeological record of the Post-III2 phase is overwhelmingly funerary, with only sparse and ephemeral habitation evidence documented at a handful of sites.
Ethnoarchaeological analogies and spatial distribution patterns suggest that this shift reflects a transition toward increased mobility and seasonal pastoralism. Site locations correspond closely to modern summer and winter pastures, indicating cyclical movements rather than permanent settlement. The emergence of isolated cemeteries along river valleys further supports the presence of mobile or semi-nomadic groups.
3.3. Demographic Decline
The Late Bronze Age Central Zagros also experienced a marked demographic decline. The number of identified sites is less than one-quarter of those documented for the Middle Bronze Age. Burial counts are low, and no large cemeteries have been identified. This pattern cannot be attributed solely to archaeological visibility issues and instead points to a genuine reduction in population density, possibly linked to environmental stress, socio-political instability, or economic reorganization.
3.4. Regional Variability and Social Differentiation
Despite overarching trends, the Late Bronze Age record exhibits notable regional variability. Some areas, particularly in Romeshgan and Kuhdasht, retain elements of earlier ceramic traditions alongside Post-III2 pottery, while others display a complete break. Differences in grave goods—including the presence or absence of weapons—suggest emerging social differentiation and localized power structures.
The discovery of elite burials containing multiple spearheads at sites such as Godin, Baba Jan, and Giyan indicates the existence of warrior elites or local leaders. In contrast, other regions lack martial equipment, implying diverse social roles and possibly differing degrees of conflict or political organization.
3.5. Interregional Connections and the Khabur Horizon
The stylistic and typological parallels between Post-III2 pottery and Late Khabur Ware are too systematic to be coincidental. These similarities point to sustained interaction with northern Mesopotamia, likely facilitated by long-distance exchange networks associated with Old Assyrian trade. While direct migration cannot be conclusively demonstrated, the adoption of Khabur ceramic styles suggests cultural transmission within a broader interregional horizon spanning the early second millennium BCE.
- Conclusion
The Late Bronze Age of the Central Zagros represents a period of profound cultural transformation marked by the collapse of long-standing settlement systems, radical changes in material culture, demographic contraction, and increased mobility. The Post-III2 phase stands in sharp contrast to the cultural continuity that characterized the preceding millennium of Godin III, signaling a decisive rupture in regional socio-cultural trajectories.
The evidence presented in this study demonstrates that these changes were neither localized nor superficial. Instead, they reflect a comprehensive restructuring of economic practices, settlement organization, and social relations. The dominance of burial assemblages, the selective nature of ceramic inventories, and the strong stylistic affinities with Khabur Ware traditions underscore the integration of the Central Zagros into wider cultural networks of the early second millennium BCE.
Rather than interpreting these developments solely as decline, this study argues that the Late Bronze Age Central Zagros should be understood as a period of adaptive transformation. Mobile lifeways, flexible social structures, and participation in interregional exchange networks may have provided viable alternatives to earlier sedentary systems under changing environmental or political conditions.
By offering the first comprehensive synthesis of the Late Bronze Age Central Zagros, this research provides a new framework for understanding cultural discontinuity, mobility, and interregional interaction in western Iran. It highlights the need to reconsider traditional narratives of collapse and to recognize the dynamic responses of human societies to shifting historical circumstances.
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