Illicit Drugs in Wastewater Treatment Plants A case study: Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
محورهای موضوعی :
1 - Sergio Arouca National School of Public Health, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
کلید واژه: Occurrence, Wastewater-Based Epidemiology, Drug consumption, Illicit drug,
چکیده مقاله :
Intake of illicit drugs should be expressed not merely for the reason of the public health aspects but also in an environmental context concerning the contamination of surface waters. Wastewater-based epidemiology consists in acquiring relevant information about the standard of living and in population health status athwart the investigation of wastewater samples collected at the influent of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). This method has been applied to the examination on samples from 4 WWTPs situated in Rio de Janeiro Municipality, Brazil, to investigate the presence of illicit drugs and their metabolites. These included cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BE, cocaine metabolite), amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (METH), and 11-nor-9-carboxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH, THC metabolite). Concentrations of COC and its main metabolite BE ranged from 201.3 to 2751.5 ng/L and from 630.7 to 5849.2 ng/L, respectively. Amphetamine-like stimulants ranged from 21.7 to 110.0 ng/L for AMP, and from 55.3 ng/L to 477.4 ng/L for METH. THC-COOH ranged from 188.8 to 940.2ng/L. The concentrations found, besides being noteworthy to public health, may likely have important repercussion influence at the functioning of the environment. It is important to detach that COC and amphetamines (including metabolites as well) have potent pharmacological activities and their incidence as multifarious assortments in the ecosystem must hurt aquatic organisms and, consequently, in human health. However, unfortunately, there is no current regulation demanding the determination of the occurrence of these pollutants at the environment. In conclusion, investigates on the spreading configuration of these illicit drugs and their potentially harmful impact on our environment needs immediate attention and regulatory limits.
1. Schulte M.T., Hser Y.I., 2014. Substance Use and Associated Health Conditions throughout the Lifespan. Public health reviews. 35(2), https: //web – beta. archive. org /web/20150206061220 / http : //www . publichealthreviews. eu/upload/pdf _files /14/00 _Schulte_Hser .pdf.
2. Hall W., Degenhardt L., Sindicich N., 2008. Illicit drug use and the burden of disease. In: Heggenhougen K., Quah S., editors. International Encyclopedia of Public Health. Elsevier. pp.523–530.
3. Logan B.K., 2001. Amphetamines: an update on forensic issues. J Anal Toxicol. 25, 400–404.
4. Griffiths P., Meacham M., McKetin R., 2008. Illicit drug trends globally. In: Heggenhougen K., Quah S., editors. International encyclopedia of public health. Elsevier, 515–523.
5. UNODC. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Amphetamines and Ecstasy: Global ATS Assessment. United Nations Publication. 2014. https://www. unodc. org/documents/scientific/2014_Global_Synthetic_Drugs_Assessment_web.pdf (Accessed November 12, 2018).
6. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World Drug Report 2018. https://www. unodc.org/wdr 2018/ prelaunch/WDR18_Booklet_1_EXSUM.pdf (Accessed July 5, 2018).
7. Nefau T., Karolak S., Castillo L., Boireau V., Levi Y., 2013. Presence of illicit drugs and metabolites in influents and effluents of 25 sewage water treatment plants and map of drug consumption in France. Sci Total Environ. 461-462, 712-722.
8. Hu P., Guo C., Zhang Y., Lv J., Zhang Y., Xu J., 2019. Occurrence, distribution and risk assessment of abused drugs and their metabolites in a typical urban river in north China. Front Environ Sci Eng. 13(4), 56-67.
9. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Bagnati R., Chiabrando C., Grassi P., Fanelli R. 2008. Illicit drugs, a novel group of environmental contaminants. Water Res. 42, 961–968.
10. Campestrini I., Jardim W.F. 2017. Occurrence of cocaine and benzoylecgonine in drinking and source water in the São Paulo State region, Brazil. Sci Total Environ. 576, 374-380.
11. Daughton C.G., 2001. Illicit Drugs in Municipal sewage: Proposed new non-intrusive tool to heighten public awareness of societal use of illicit/abused drugs and their potential for ecological consequences. In: Daughton C.G., Jones-Lepp T., editors. Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the environment: scientific and regulatory issues. Symposium Series. Washington, D.C.: American Chemical Society. pp. 348–364.
12. Zuccato E., Chiabrando C., Castiglioni S., Calamari D., Bagnati R., Schiarea S., Fanelli R., 2005. Cocaine in surface waters: a new evidence-based tool to monitor community drug abuse. Environ Health. 7, 1–7.
13. Gheorghe A., van Nuijs A., Pecceu B., Bervoets L., Jorens P.G., Blust R., Neels H., Covaci A., 2008. Analysis of cocaine and its principal metabolites in waste and surface water using solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-ion trap tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem. 391, 1309–1319.
14. Postigo C., López de Alda M.J., Barceló D., 2009. Drugs of abuse and their metabolites in the Ebro River basin: occurrence in sewage and surface water, sewage treatment plants removal efficiency, and collective drug usage estimation. Environ Int. 36, 75-84.
15. Terzic S., Senta I., Ahel M., 2010. Illicit drugs in wastewater of the city of Zagreb (Croatia) – estimation of drug abuse in a transition country. Environ Pollut. 158, 2686-2693.
16. Harman C., Reid M., Thomas K.V. 2011. In situ calibration of a passive sampling device for selected illicit drugs and their metabolites in wastewater, and subsequent year-long assessment of community drug usage. Environ Sci Technol. 45, 5676-5682.
17. van Nuijs A.L.N., Mougel J.F., Tarcomnicu I., Bervoets L., Blust R., Jorens P.G., Neels H., Covaci A. 2011. Sewage epidemiology- a real-time approach to estimate the consumption of illicit drugs in Brussels, Belgium. Environ Int. 37, 612-621.
18. Maldaner A.O., Schmidt L.L., Locatelli M.A.F., Jardim W.F., Sodré F.F., Almeida F.V., Pereira C.E.B, Silva C.M., 2012. Estimating Cocaine Consumption in the Brazilian Federal District (FD) by Sewage Analysis. J Braz Chem Soc. 23(5), 861-867.
19. Mackuľak T., Skubák J., Grabic R., Ryba J., Birošová L., Fedorova G., Swt. 2014. National study of illicit drug use in Slovakia based on wastewater analysis. Sci Total Environ. 494-495, 158-165.
20. Ort C., Eppler J.M., Scheidegger A., Rieckermann J., Kinzig M., Sörgel F., 2014. Challenges of surveying wastewater drug loads of small populations and generalizable aspects on optimizing monitoring design. Addiction. 109, 472-481.
21. Ostman M., Fick J., Näsström E., Lindberg R.H., 2014. A snapshot of illicit drug use in Sweden acquired through sewage water analysis. Sci Total Environ. 472, 862-871.
22. Been F., Bijlsma L., Benaglia L., Berset J.D., Botero-Coy A.M., Castiglioni S., Kraus L., Zobel F., Schaub M.P., Bücheli A., Hernández F., Delémont O., Esseiva P., Ort C., 2016. Assessing geographical differences in illicit drug consumption - A comparison of results from epidemiological and wastewater data in Germany and Switzerland. Drug Alcohol Depend. 161, 189-199.
23. Kankaanpää A., Ariniemi K., Heinonen M., Kuoppasalmi K., Gunnar T., 2016. Current trends in Finnish drug abuse: Wastewater based epidemiology combined with other national indicators. Sci Total Environ. 568, 864-874.
24. Krizman I., Senta I., Ahel M., Terzic S., 2016. Wastewater-based assessment of regional and temporal consumption patterns of illicit drugs and therapeutic opioids in Croatia. Sci Total Environ. 566-567, 454-462.
25. Lai F.Y., O'Brien J.W., Thai P.K., Hall W., Chan G., Bruno R., Ort C., Prichard J., Carter S., Anuj S., Kirkbride K.P., Gartner C., Humphries M., Mueller J.F., 2016. Cocaine, MDMA and methamphetamine residues in wastewater: Consumption trends (2009-2015) in South East Queensland, Australia. Sci Total Environ. 568, 803-809.
26. Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., Senta I., Borsotti A., Genetti B., Andreotti A., Pieretti G., Serpelloni G., 2016. Population surveys compared with wastewater analysis for monitoring illicit drug consumption in Italy in 2010-2014. Drug Alcohol Depend. 161, 178-188.
27. Mastroianni N., López-García E., Postigo C., Barceló D., López de Alda M. 2017. Five-year monitoring of 19 illicit and legal substances of abuse at the inlet of a wastewater treatment plant in Barcelona (NE Spain) and estimation of drug consumption patterns and trends. Sci Total Environ. 609, 916-926.
28. Feng L.Z., Zhang W., Li X.Q., 2018. Monitoring of regional drug abuse through wastewater-based epidemiology—A critical review. Science China Earth Sciences. 61, 239–255.
29. The Merck Manual – Second home edition. 2004. Section 2. Drugs, Chapter 11, Drug administration and kinetics. http:www.merckhomeedition.com/home.html (Accessed June 15, 2018).
30. Jenkins A.J., 2007. Pharmacokinetics: drug absorption, distribution, and elimination. In: Karch S.B., editor. Drug abuse handbook. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 167.
31. Pertwee R.G., 2005. Pharmacological actions of cannabinoids. Handb Exp Pharmacol. 168, 1-51.
32. Huestis M.A., 2007. Human cannabinoid pharmacokinetics. Chem Biodivers. 4(8), 1770–804.
33. Jatlow P., 1988. Cocaine: Analysis, pharmacokinetics, and metabolic disposition. Yale J Biol. Med. 61, 105–113.
34. Jufer R.A., Wstadik A., Walsh S.L., Levine B.S., Cone E.J., 2000. Elimination of cocaine and metabolites in plasma, saliva, and urine following repeated oral administration to human volunteers. J Anal Toxicol. 24, 467–477.
35. Baselt R.C., Cravey R.H., 2014. Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man. 10th Edition. Foster City, California: Biomedical Publications. pp.76.
36. Evans-Brown M., Gallegos A., Francis W., Christie R., Cunningham A., Sekula J., Almeida A, Sedefov R., 2015. New psychoactive substances in Europe an update from the EU Early Warning System. Luxembourg: Publications Office. http://dx.publications.europa.eu/ 10.2810/372415.
37. Mueller M., Peters F.T., Huestis M.A., Ricaurte G.A., Maurer H.H., 2009. Simultaneous liquid chromatographic-electrospray ionization mass spectrometric quantification of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) and its metabolites 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine in squirrel monkey and human plasma after acidic conjugate cleavage. Forensic Sci Int. 184, 64–68.
38. Khan U., Nicell J.A. 2011. Refined sewer epidemiology mass balances and their application to heroin, cocaine and ecstasy. Environ Int. 37, 1236–1252.
39. Been F., Rossi L., Ort C., Rudaz S., Delémont O., Esseiva P. 2014. Population normalization with ammonium in wastewater-based epidemiology: Application to illicit drug monitoring. Environ Sci Technol. 48(14), 8162–8169.
40. De La Torre R., Farré M., Ortuño J., Mas M., Brenneisen R., Roset P.N., Segura J., Camí J. 2000. Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA (ecstasy) in humans. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 49, 104–109.
41. Segura M., Ortuño J., Farré M., McLure J.A., Pujadas M., Pizarro N., Llebaria A., Joglar J., Roset P.N., Segura J., de La Torre R. 2001. 3,4-Dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA). A major in vivo 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) Metabolite in humans. Chem Res Toxicol., 14(9), 1203–1208.
42. Pizarro N., Ortuño J., Farré M., Hernández-López C., Pujadas M., Llebaria A., Joglar J., Roset P.N., Mas M., Segura J., Camí J., de la Torre R., 2002. Determination of MDMA and its metabolites in blood and urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and analysis of enantiomers by capillary electrophoresis. J Anal Toxicol. 26(3), 157–165.
43. Krizman I., Senta I., Ahel M., Terzic S. 2016. Wastewater-based assessment of regional and temporal consumption patterns of illicit drugs and therapeutic opioids in Croatia. Sci Total Environ. 566-567, 454-462.
44. Senta I., Krizman I., Ahel M., Terzić S., 2013. Integrated procedure for multiresidue analysis of dissolved and particulate drugs in municipal wastewater by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem. 405, 3255–3268.
45. Terzic S., Senta I., Ahel M. 2010. Illicit drugs in wastewater of the city of Zagreb (Croatia) — Estimation of drug abuse in a transition country. Environ Pollut. 158, 2686–2693.
46. Baker D. R., Kasprzyk-Hordern B. 2011. Multi-residue analysis of drugs of abuse in wastewater and surface water by solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-positive electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A. 1218(12), 1620−1631.
47. Postigo C., López de Alda M.J. Barceló D. 2011. Evaluation of drugs of abuse use and trends in a prison through wastewater analysis. Environ Int. 37, 49–55.
48. Thai P.K., Lai F.Y., Bruno R., van Dyken E., Hall W., O’Brien J., Prichard J., Mueller J.F., 2016. Refining the excretion factors of methadone and codeine for wastewater analysis—combining data from pharmacokinetic and wastewater studies. Environ Int. 94, 307–314.
49. Gracia-Lor E., Zuccato E., Castiglioni S., 2016. Refining correction factors for back-calculation of illicit drug use. Sci Total Environ. 573, 1648–1659.
50. Castiglioni S., Bijlsma L., Covaci A., Emke E., Hernández F., Reid M., Ort C., Thomas K.V., van Nuijs A.L., de Voogt P., Zuccato E., 2013. Evaluation of uncertainties associated with the determination of community drug use through the measurement of sewage drug biomarkers. Environ Sci Technol. 47, 1452–1460.
51. Ferreira A.P., 2019.Estimaciones del consumo de drogas ilícitas derivadas del análisis de aguas residuales: Una revisión crítica. Rev Univ Ind Santander Salud. 51(1), 69-80.
