Environmental Restoration, an Ecological Approach to Enhance Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity in Urban Areas. Magnuson Park Seattle/Washington
محورهای موضوعی : Environmental policy and management
N/A N/A
1
(N/A)
کلید واژه: Urban ecosystem services, Ecosystem conservation, Magnuson Park,
چکیده مقاله :
People’s life has been always determined by the importance of their basic needs. From time to time, the world has made significant progress in terms of infrastructure and technology, pathways to good living conditions. Urban areas house most of the world’s population, and there has been a surge in interest in researching urban ecosystems. For many, urban areas are sometimes viewed as concrete jungles, with limited fauna and flora dominated by nonnatives and homogenous taxa across regions. This settlement in urban areas creates rapid urbanization which in return has harmful impacts on the environment. There is growing awareness that cities affect almost every ecosystem on earth, significantly contribute to the loss of biodiversity, which are increasingly vulnerable to environmental change. Urban areas can also be healthy natural environments when mixed with blue and green infrastructures, which operations perform a range of benefits known as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services include but are not limited to pollution reduction, soil protection, carbon sequestration, cooling effect, and air purification. Healthy ecosystems are the foundation for sustainable cities, influencing and affecting human well-being and most economic activity. To better understand the growing concerns and find key actions to be able to fight against them, this study uses different scenarios to evaluate the restoration effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services through a typology with two main categories. One part describes the structure of different ecosystems, which are the compound of blue and green infrastructures along with their respective biodiversity.
Adger, W. N. (2006). Vulnerability. Global Environnemental Change, 16(3), 268–281.https://doi.org/10.1016/jgloenvcha.2006.02.006
Alamgir, M., Turton, S. M., Macgregor, C. J., and Pert, P. L. (2016). Assessing regulating and provisioning ecosystem services in a contrasting tropical forest landscape. Ecological Indicators, 64, 319–334. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.01.016
Alberti, M., Vivanco, M.G., Gonzalez-Fernadez, I., Bermejo, V.m Palomino, I., Garrido, J.L., Artinano, B. (2011). Modelling the influence of peri-urban trees in the air quality of Madrid region (Spain). Environmental Pollution, 159 (8-9) 2183-2147
Alberti, M. et al. (2003). Integrating humans into ecology: opportunities and challenges for studying urban ecosystems. Bioscience 53,1169–1179
Alexander, S., Aronson, J., Whaley, O., and Lamb, D. (2016). The relationship between ecological restoration and the ecosystem services concept. Ecology and Society, 21(1)Pp. http://doi:10.5751/es-08288-210134
American Forests (1998). Regional Ecosystem Analysis: Puget Sound Metropolitan Area. https://www.americanforests.org/downloads/rea/AF_PugetSound.pdf
Arno, S. F., Scott, J. H. and Hartwell, M. G. (1995). Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p.
Bakker, J. D., Wilson, S. D., Christian, J. M., Li, X., Ambrose, L. G., & Waddington, J. (2003). Contingency of Grassland Restoration on Year, Site, Competition from Introduced Grasses. Ecological Applications, 13(1), 137–153. http://doi:10.1890/1051-0761(2003)013[0137:cogroy]2.0.co;2
Bastian, O., Haase, D., and Grunewald, K. (2012). Ecosystem properties, potentials and services – The EPPS conceptual framework and an urban application example. Ecological Indicators, 21, 7–16. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.03.014
Beer, C., Reichstein, M., Tomelleri, E., Ciais, P., Jung, M., Carvalhais, N., Rödenbeck, C., Arain, A., Baldocchi, D., Bonan, G., Bondeau, A., Cescatti, A., Lasslop, G., Lindroth, A., Lomas, M., Luyssaert, S., Margolis, H., Oleson, K., Roupsard, O., Veenendaal, E., Viovy, N., Williams, C., Woodward, I. and Papale, D. (2010). Terrestrial Gross Carbon Dioxide Uptake: Global Distribution and Covariation with Climate. Science, 329(5993), 834–838. http://doi:10.1126/science.1184984
Berger, J. J. (1997). Nine Ways to save our forests. Sierra 82(4), 38-39.
Blanco, G., Gerlagh, R., Suh, S., Barrett, J., de Coninck, H.C., Morejon, C.F.D, Mathur, R., Nakicenovic, N., et al. (2014). Chapter 5 - Drivers, trends and mitigation. In: Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. IPCC Working Group III Contribution to AR5. Cambridge University Press. Country?
Blitzer, E. J., Dormann, C. F., Holzschuh, A., Klein, A. M., Rand, T. A., and Tscharntke, T. (2012). Spillover of functionally important organisms between managed and natural habitats. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 146(1), 34–43. http://doi:10.1016/j.agee.2011.09.005
Blumenfeld, S., Lu, C., Christophersen, T. and Coates, D. (2009). Water, Wetlands, and forests. A review of Ecological, Economic, and Policy Linkages. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity and Secretariat of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, Montreal, and Gland. CBD Technical Series No. 47.
Bolund, P., and Hunhammar, S. (1999). Ecosystem services in urban areas. Ecological Economics, 29(2), 293–301. http://doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00013-0
Boyd, J., and Banzhaf, S. (2007). What are ecosystem services? The need for standardized environmental accounting units. Ecological Economics, 63(2-3), 616–626. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.01.002
Bradshaw, A. D. (1984). Ecological principles and land reclamation practice. Landscape Planning, 11(1), 35–48. http://doi:10.1016/0304-3924(84)90016-9
Breuste, J. H., and Artmann, M. (2015). Allotment gardens contribute to urban ecosystem service: Case study Salzburg, Austria. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 141(3), A5014005. http://doi:10.1061/(asce)up.1943-5444.0000264
Calfapietra, C., Peñuelas, J., and Niinemets, Ü. (2015). Urban plant physiology: adaptation-mitigation strategies under permanent stress. Trends in Plant Science, 20(2), 72–75. http://doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2014.11.001
Campbell, D. and Jackson, R. (2004). Hydrology of wetlands. In: Harding, J., Mosley, P., Pearson, C., Sorrell, B. eds Freshwaters of New Zealand. Christchurch, Caxton Press for the New Zealand Hydrological Society and New Zealand Limnological Society. pp. 20.1–20.14
Carpenter, S. R., Folke, C., Norström, A., Olsson, O., Schultz, L., Agarwal, B. et al. (2012). Program on ecosystem change and society: an international research strategy for integrated social–ecological systems. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 4(1), 134–138. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2012.01.001
Chase, J. M. (2003). Community assembly: when should history matter? Oecologia, 136(4), 489–498. http://doi:10.1007/s00442-003-1311-7
Chesapeake Research Consortium (2018). Blue Carbon in Wetland Collaboratively Connecting Science to Management. Available at: http://chesapeake.org/2018/08/07/blue-carbon-in-wetlands/
Chmura, G. L., Anisfeld, S. C., Cahoon, D. R., and Lynch, J. C. (2003). Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 17(4). http://doi:10.1029/2002gb001917
Christensen, N. L., Bartuska, A. M., Brown, J. H., Carpenter, S., D’Antonio, C., Francis, R. et al. (1996). The Report of the Ecological Society of America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management. Ecological Applications, 6(3), 665–691. http://doi:10.2307/2269460
Cinner, J. E., Huchery, C., Hicks, C. C., Daw, T. M., Marshall, N., Wamukota, A., and Allison, E. H. (2015). Changes in adaptive capacity of Kenyan fishing communities. Nature Climate Change, 5(9), 872–876. http://doi:10.1038/nclimate2690
Clark, L. R., and Sampson, R. N. (1995). Forest Ecosystem Health in the Inland West: A Science and Policy Reader. Forest Policy Center, American Forests, Washington, DC.
Clewell, A. F. and Aronson, J. (2013). Ecological restoration: principles, values, and structure of an emerging profession. Second edition. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA. http://doi. org/10.5822/978-1-59726-323-8
Colding, J., Lundberg, J., and Folke, C. (2006). Incorporating Green-area User Groups in Urban Ecosystem Management. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 35(5), 237–244. http://doi:10.1579/05-a-098r.1
Conradin, K. (2009). The Nutrient Cycle, SSWM. Available at: https://www.sswm.info/category/concept/nutrient-cycle
Convention on Biological Diversity Press Brief. (2015). Wetlands and ecosystem services, world wetland day. Available at: www.cbd.int
Costanza, R., d’ Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Hannon, B. et al. (1997). The value of the world’s ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature, 387(6630), 253–260. http://doi:10.1038/387253a0
Daily G. C. and Ehrlich P. R. (1995) Population Extinction and the Biodiversity Crisis. In: Perrings, C. A., Mäler, K. G., Folke C., Holling, C. S., Jansson, B. O. (eds) Biodiversity Conservation. Ecology, Economy & Environment, vol 4. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0277-3_3
Dana, S. T. and Fairfax, S. K. (1980). Forest and Range Policy. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Danley, B., and Widmark, C. (2016). Evaluating conceptual definitions of ecosystem services and their implications. Ecological Economics, 126, 132–138. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.04.003
Dobrovolny, P. (2013). The surface urban heat island in the city of Brno (Czech Republic) derived from land surface temperatures and selected reasons for its spatial variability. Theoretical and applied climatology, 112 (1-2), 8998
Dow, K. (2000). Social dimensions of gradients in urban ecosystems. Urban Ecosystems, 4(4), 255–275. http://doi:10.1023/a:1015767231137
Ducarme, F., Couvet, D. (2020). What does ‘nature’ mean? Palgrave Commun 6(14). | (2020) 6:14 | https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-020-0390-y | www.nature.com/palcomms
Egoh, B. N., Paracchini, M. L., Zulian, G., Schägner, J. P., and Bidoglio, G. (2014). Exploring restoration options for habitats, species and ecosystem services in the European Union. Journal of Applied Ecology, 51(4), 899–908. http://doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12251
Elliott, M., Burdon, D., Hemingway, K. L., and Apitz, S. E. (2007). Estuarine, coastal and marine ecosystem restoration: Confusing management and science – A revision of concepts. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science, 74(3), 349–366. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecss.2007.05.034
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2012) Payments for Ecosystem Services. Available at: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability_pathways/docs/F actsheet_PES.pdf
Franklin, J. F. (1988). Structural and functional diversity in temperate forests. In: Wilson, E. O., ed. Biodiversity. Washington, DC: National Academy Press: 166-175.
Franklin, J. F., Cromack Jr. K., Denison, W., McKee, A., Maser, C., Sedell, J., Swanson, F. and Juday, G. (1981). Ecological characteristics of old-growth Douglas-firforests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW- I 18, USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Ore.
Galluzzi, G., Eyzaguirre, P., and Negri, V. (2010). Home gardens: neglected hotspots of agro-biodiversity and cultural diversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(13), 3635–3654. http://doi:10.1007/s10531-010-9919-5
Gardiner, M. M., Prajzner, S. P., Burkman, C. E., Albro, S., and Grewal, P. S. (2013). Vacant land conversion to community gardens: influences on generalist arthropod predators and biocontrol services in urban greenspaces. Urban Ecosystems, 17(1), 101–122. http://doi:10.1007/s11252-013-0303-6
Goddard, M. A., Dougill, A. J., and Benton, T. G. (2010). Scaling up from gardens: biodiversity conservation in urban environments. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 25(2), 90–98. http://doi:10.1016/j.tree.2009.07.016
Green Seattle Partnership. (2014). Magnuson Park Restoration Walks, Society for Ecological Restoration Northwest Chapter. Available at: http://chapter.ser.org/northwest/files/2014/04/Magnuson-Restoration-Walks-2014.pdf
Harmon, M. E., Franklin J. F., Swanson, F. J., Sollins, P., Gregory, S.V., Lattin, J. D., Anderson, N. H., Cline, S. P., Aumen, N. G., Sedell, J. R., Lienkaemper, G. W., Cromack, Jr. K., and Cummins, K. W. (1986). Ecology of Coarse Woody Debris in Temperate Ecosystems. Advances in Ecological Research, Vol 133–302. http://doi:10.1016/s0065-2504(08)60121-x
Hansen A. J., T. A. Spies., F. J. Swanson., J. L. Ohmann. (1991). Conserving Biodiversity in Managed Forests. Source: BioScience, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 382-392. American Institute of Biological Sciences http://www.jstor.org/stable/1311745
Hedrick, P. (2005). Genetic restoration:' a more comprehensive perspective than 'genetic rescue'. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20(3), 109–109. http://doi:10.1016/j.tree.2005.01.006
Heimlich, R. and Anderson, W. (2001). Development at the urban fringe and beyond: impacts on agriculture and rural land. US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC.
Heneghan, L., Rauschenberg, C., Fatemi, F., and Workman, M. (2004). European Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and its Effects on Some Ecosystem Properties in an Urban Woodland. Ecological Restoration, 22(4), 275–280. http://doi:10.3368/er.22.4.275
Hobbs, R. J., and Norton, D. A. (1996). Towards a Conceptual Framework for Restoration Ecology. Restoration Ecology, 4(2), 93–110. http://doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.1996.tb00112.x
Hobbs, R. J., Arico, S., Aronson, J., Baron, J. S., Bridgewater, P., Cramer, V. A. et al. (2006). Novel ecosystems: theoretical and management aspects of the new ecological world order. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 15(1), 1–7. http://doi:10.1111/j.1466-822x.2006.00212.x
Holling C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4(1),1–23.
Hooper, D. U., Chapin, F. S., Ewel, J. J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., et al. (2005). Effects of Biodiversity on Ecosystem Functioning: A Consensus of Current Knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 75(1), 3–35. http://doi:10.1890/04-0922
Jansson, Å., and Nohrstedt, P. (2001). Carbon sinks and human freshwater dependence in Stockholm County. Ecological Economics, 39(3), 361–370. http://doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(01)00224-5
Keddy, P. A. (2010). Wetland ecology: principles and conservation (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 497.
Kreye, M., Adams, D., and Escobedo, F. (2014). The Value of Forest Conservation for Water Quality Protection. Forests, 5(5), 862–884. http://doi:10.3390/f5050862
Kumar, P. (2010). The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations. London and Washington: Earthscan.
Lal, R. and Lorenz, K. (2012). Carbon sequestration in temperate forests. In: Lal, R., Lorenz, K., Hüttl, R., Schneider, B. and von Braun, J. (eds) Recarbonization of the biosphere. Springer, Amsterdam
Lanarc-Golder H. B. (2013). The Urban Farming Guidebook Planning for the Business of Growing Food in BC's Towns & Cities. EcoDesign Resource Society, Vancouver
Lindenmayer, D. B., Franklin, J. F., Lõhmus, A., Baker, S. C., Bauhus, J., Beese, W., et al. (2012). A major shift to the retention approach for forestry can help resolve some global forest sustainability issues. Conservation Letters, 5(6), 421–431. http://doi:10.1111/j.1755-263x.2012.00257.x
Liu, J., Calmon, M., Clewell, A., Liu, J., Denjean, B., Engel, V. L., and Aronson, J. (2016). South-south cooperation for large-scale ecological restoration. Restoration Ecology, 25(1), 27–32. http://doi:10.1111/rec.12462
Lubchenco, J., Barner, A. K., Cerny-Chipman, E. B., and Reimer, J. N. (2015). Sustainability rooted in science. Nature Geoscience, 8(10), 741–745. http://doi:10.1038/ngeo2552
Luck, G. W., Daily, G. C., and Ehrlich, P. R. (2003). Population diversity and ecosystem services. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 18(7), 331–336. http://doi:10.1016/s0169-5347(03)00100-9
MacMahon, J. A. (1997). Ecological restoration. Pages 479–511 in G.K. Meffe, and C.R. Carroll, eds. Principles of conservation biology 2nd edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA.
Maes, J., Liquete, C., Teller, A., Erhard, M., Paracchini, M. L., Barredo, J. I. et al. (2016). An indicator framework for assessing ecosystem services in support of the EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020. Ecosystem Services, 17, 14–23. http://doi:10.1016/j.ecoser.2015.10.023
Maser, C. and Trappe, J. M. (1984). The seen and unseen world of the fallen tree. USDA, For. Serv., Gen.Tech. Rep. PNW-164, Pac. Northwest. Res. Sta., Port-land, OR. 56 p. http://doi.org/10.2737/PNW-GTR-164
Matteson, K. C., and Langellotto, G. A. (2010). Determinates of inner-city butterfly and bee species richness. Urban Ecosystems, 13(3), 333–347. http://doi:10.1007/s11252-010-0122-y
McClintock, N., Cooper, J., and Khandeshi, S. (2013). Assessing the potential contribution of vacant land to urban vegetable production and consumption in Oakland, California. Landscape and Urban Planning, 111, 46–58. http://doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.12.009
McDonnell, M. J., Pickett, S. T. A., Groffman, P., Bohlen, P., Pouyat, R. V., Zipperer, W. C. et al. (1997). Ecosystem processes along an urban-to-rural gradient. Urban Ecosystems, 1(1), 21–36. http://doi:10.1023/a:1014359024275
McKay, J. K., Christian, C. E., Harrison, S., and Rice, K. J. (2005). “How Local Is Local?”-A Review of Practical and Conceptual Issues in the Genetics of Restoration. Restoration Ecology, 13(3), 432–440. http://doi:10.1111/j.1526-100x.2005.00058.x
McPherson, E. G., Nowak, D., Heisler, G., Grimmond, S., Souch, C., Grant, R., and Rowntree, R. (1997). Urban Ecosystems, 1(1), 49–61. http://doi:10.1023/a:1014350822458
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Washington, DC: Island Press. Available at: http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document. 356.aspx.pdf
Miller, G. (1994). Living in the Environment, 8th ed. Wadsworth, Belmont, CA, 701 pp.
Moll, G. and Petit, J. (1994). The urban ecosystem: putting nature back in the picture. Urban Forests, 14(5), 8-15.
Mooney, H., Larigauderie, A., Cesario, M., Elmquist, T., Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Lavorel, S. et al. (2009). Biodiversity, climate change, and ecosystem services. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 1(1), 46–54. http://doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2009.07.006
Mora, C., Tittensor, D. P., Adl, S., Simpson, A. G. B., and Worm, B. (2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLoS Biology, 9(8), e1001127. http://doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127
Moseman-Valtierra, S., Gonzalez, R., Kroeger, K. D., Tang, J., Chao, W. C., Crusius, J. et al. (2011). Short-term nitrogen additions can shift a coastal wetland from a sink to a source of N2O. Atmospheric Environment, 45(26), 4390–4397. http://doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.05.046
Moser, J. W. (1994). Sustaining long-term forest health and productivity: Resolution of the council, society of American foresters. Journal of Forestry, 92(2) Pp, http://doi.org/10.1093/jof/92.2.7
Mumby, P. J., Chollett, I., Bozec, Y. M., & Wolff, N. H. (2014). Ecological resilience, robustness and vulnerability: how do these concepts benefit ecosystem management? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 7, 22–27. http://doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.021
Naeem, S., Bunker, D. E., Hector, A., Loreau, M. and Perrings, C. (2009). Biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and human wellbeing, an ecological and economic perspective. Oxford University Press. http://doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199547951.001.0001
Nowak D. J., Hoehn, R. E. I., Crane, D. E., Stevens, J. C. and Walton, J. T. (2007) Assessing Urban Forest Effects and Values: Philadelphia’s Urban Forest. USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station. http://doi.org/10.2737/NRS-RB-7
Pan, Y., Birdsey, R. A., Fang, J., Houghton, R., Kauppi, P. E., Kurz, W. A. and et al. (2011). A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World’s Forests. Science, 333(6045), 988–993. http://doi:10.1126/science.1201609
Pataki, D. E., Carreiro, M. M., Cherrier, J., Grulke, N. E., Jennings, V., Pincetl, S. and et al. (2011). Coupling biogeochemical cycles in urban environments: ecosystem services, green solutions, and misconceptions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 9(1), 27–36. http://doi:10.1890/090220
Pavlikakis, G. E., and Tsihrintzis, V. A. (2000). Ecosystem management: a review of a new concept and methodology. Water Resources Management, 14(4), 257–283. http://doi:10.1023/a:1008139011867
Pimm, S. L., and Raven, P. (2000). Extinction by numbers. Nature, 403(6772), 843–845. http://doi:10.1038/35002708
Puget Sound Action Team (2007). Ninth Report of the Puget Sound Ambient Monitoring Program. Olympia, Washington.
Pugh, T. A. M., MacKenzie, A. R., Whyatt, J. D., and Hewitt, C. N. (2012). Effectiveness of Green Infrastructure for Improvement of Air Quality in Urban Street Canyons. Environmental Science & Technology, 46(14), 7692–7699. http://doi:10.1021/es300826w
Quintas-Soriano, C., Martín-López, B., Santos-Martín, F., Loureiro, M., Montes, C., Benayas, J., and García-Llorente, M. (2016). Ecosystem services values in Spain: A meta-analysis. Environmental Science & Policy, 55, 186–195. http://doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2015.10.001
Radeloff V. C., R. B. Hammer., S. I. Stewart., J. S. Fried., S. S. Holcomb., J. F. McKeefry. (2005). The Wildland–Urban Interface in The United States. Ecological Application/Ecological Society of America, Corresponding Editor: G. H. Aplet. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-1413
Ramsar (2009a). Factsheet 1: Flood control. Gland, Switzerland, Ramsar Convention Secretariat
Ramsar. (2009b). Factsheet 6: Reservoirs of biodiversity. Gland, Switzerland, Ramsar Convention
Ramsar. (2009c). Factsheet 7: Wetland products. Gland, Switzerland, Ramsar Convention Secretariat.
Rebele, F. (1994). Urban ecology and special features of urban ecosystems. Global Ecology and Biogeography Letters, 4(6), 173. http://doi:10.2307/2997649
Richardson, J. L., Arndt, J. L. and Montgomery, J. A. (2001). ‘Hydrology of wetland and related soils’ in Richardson J. L. and Vepraskas, M. J. (eds), Wetland Soils, Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton.
Ruggiero, L. F., Jones, L. C. and Aubry K. B. (1991) Plant and Animal Habitat Associations in Douglas-fir Forests of the Pacific Northwest: An Overview. In Ruggiero, L. F., Aubry, K. B., Carey, A. B. and Huff, M. H. (tech coords.). Wildlife and Vegetation of Unmanaged Douglas-Fir Forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-285, USDA,Forest Service, Portland, Ore. pp. 447-462.
Sandhu, H., Porter, J. and Wratten, S. (2013). Experimental Assessment of Ecosystem Services in Agriculture. In Wratten, S. Cullen, R. and Wilson, M. Ecosystem Services in Agricultural and Urban Landscapes, http://doi.org/10.1002/9781118506271.ch8
Schulze, E. D. and Mooney, H. A. (2012). Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Springer, Heidelberg.
Seattle Parks and Recreation (2001). Sand Point Magnuson Park Vegetation Management Plan. Available at : https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/ParksAndRecreation/PoliciesPlanning/Vegetation%20Management%20Plans/MagnusonVMP_complete.pdf
Sheldon and Associates (2001). Sand Point Magnuson Park Vegetation Management Plan. Ins., Seattle, Washington
Society for Ecological Restoration (1993). Ecological restoration, conservation, and environmentalism: Mission statement and environmental policies of the Society for Ecological Restoration. Restoration Ecology 1, 206-207.
Society for Ecological Restoration (2004). The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. Available at: www.ser.org
Society for Ecological Restoration (2013). Code of Ethics. Available at: https://www.ser.org/page/%20CodeofEthics/Code-of-Ethics.htm
Soil Science of America (2018). K-12 Soil Science Teacher Resources. Available at: https://www.soils4teachers.org/lessons-and-activities/teachers-guide/forest
Steenberg, J. W. N., Duinker, P. N., and Nitoslawski, S. A. (2019). Ecosystem-based management revisited: Updating the concepts for urban forests. Landscape and Urban Planning, 186, 24–35. http://doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.02.006
Steenberg, J. W. N., Duinker, P. N., and Nitoslawski, S. A. (2019). Ecosystem-based management revisited: Updating the concepts for urban forests. Landscape and Urban Planning, 186, 24–35. http://doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.02.006
Svensson, M. and Eliasson, I. (1997). Gronstrukturens betydelse for stadens ventilation (The importance of green areas for the ventilation of the city). Naturvardsverkets rapport 4779, Stockholm (in Swedish).
Tallis, H., Mooney, H., Andelman, S., Balvanera, P., Cramer, W., Karp, D., et al. (2012). A global system for monitoring ecosystem service change. BioScience, 62(11), 977–986. http://doi:10.1525/bio.2012.62.11.7
Taylor, J. R., and Lovell, S. T. (2012). Mapping public and private spaces of urban agriculture in Chicago through the analysis of high-resolution aerial images in Google Earth. Landscape and Urban Planning, 108(1), 57–70. http://doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2012.08.001
The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2005). The Economic, Social, and Ecological Value of Ecosystem Services: A Literature Review. London: UK. Available at: https://www.cbd.int/financial/values/unitedkingdom-valueliterature.pdf
The Freshwater Society (2013). Urban Agriculture as a Green Storm water Management Strategy. Minneapolis, MN: Mississippi Watershed Management Organization.country?
Timoshkin, O. A., Sitnikova, T. Y., Rusinek, O. T., Pronin, N. M., et al. (2001). Index of animal species inhabiting Lake Baikal and its catchment area. Guides and Keys to Identification of Fauna and Flora of Lake Baikal”. 2 1 (1st ed.) (Novosibirsk, Nauka: John Wiley & Sons).
Trowbridge, W. B. (2007). The role of stochasticity and priority effects in floodplain restoration. Ecological Applications, 17(5), 1312–1324. http://doi:10.1890/06-1242.1
True, K. and Dolan, M. (2003). Nature in the City: Seattle. Mountaineers Books.
U.S. EPA (2009). Synthesis of Adaptation Options for Coastal Areas, Washington DC US, Environmental Protection Agency, Climate Ready Estuaries Program, EPA 430-F-08-024.
UN Environment Program (2019). Cities and climate change. Available at : https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/resource-efficiency/what-we-do/cities/cities-and-climate-change
Union of Concerned Scientists (2013). 10% of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Come from Deforestation. Available at: https://blog.ucsusa.org/doug-boucher/ten-percent-of-greenhouse-gas-emissions-come-from-deforestation-342
United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). World Urbanization Prospects: The 2014 Revision, (ST/ESA/SER.A/366).
Verbruggen, E., Kiers, E. T., Bakelaar, P. N. C., Röling, W. F. M., and van der Heijden, M. G. A. (2011). Provision of contrasting ecosystem services by soil communities from different agricultural fields. Plant and Soil, 350(1-2), 43–55. http://doi:10.1007/s11104-011-0828-5
Washington State Department of Ecology (2016). Overview: Threats, Saving Puget Sound. Available at: www.ecy.wa.gov
Westman, W. E. (1978). Measuring the Inertia and Resilience of Ecosystems. BioScience, 28(11), 705–710. http://doi:10.2307/1307321
Williams, J. T., Schmidt, R. G., Norum, R. A., Omi, P. N., and Lee, R. G. (1993) Fire-related considerations and strategies in support of ecosystem management. USDA Forest Service Staffing Paper, Washington, DC.
World Bank Group (2011). Population Estimates and Projections from 1960 to 2050. Available at: https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/population-estimates-and-projections
Young, T. P. (2000). Restoration ecology and conservation biology. Biological Conservation, 92(1), 73–83. http://doi:10.1016/s0006-3207(99)00057-9
Young, T. P., Petersen, D. A., and Clary, J. J. (2005). The ecology of restoration: historical links, emerging issues and unexplored realms. Ecology Letters, 8(6), 662–673. http://doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2005.00764.x
Zacharias, M. A., and Roff, J. C. (2001). Use of focal species in marine conservation and management: a review and critique. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 11(1), 59–76. http://doi:10.1002/aqc.429
