Investigating the Effect of Sex Education on Enhancing Parents’ Sexual Knowledge and their Sense of Competence
Subject Areas : Educational PsychologyKhosro Rashid 1 , Maryam Hosseini Nazarlou 2
1 - هیئت علمی گروه روانشناسی دانشگاه بوعلی سینا همدان
2 - دانشجوی دکتری روانشناسی تربیتی دانشگاه بوعلی سینا همدان
Keywords: sex education, sense of competence, Sexual Hnowledge,
Abstract :
The present study was an attempt to investigate the effect of sex education on enhancing parents’ sexual knowledge and their sense of competence. The statistical population of this qusoi-exerimental study included all parents in Urmia among whom 30 paris were randomly chosen, 15 pairs in the experimental group and 15 paris in the control group. The experimental group recived child sexual training whereas the control group did not receive any training. To measure the research variables, a researcher-made questionnaire about parents’ sex education and Ohan and Johnston’s Parenting Sense of Competence scale were used. To analyze the data, the mean and standard deviation were calcutaled and covsriance analysis was conducted. The results showed that the mean of the parents’ knoeledge and sence of competence increased after the training in the experimental group but not in the control group. Hence, it can be concluded that educational mediation through sex education can enhancs parents’ knoeledge about child sexual training and their sense of competence
Adamson, D., Clemente, A., Little, W., Moody, L., Simms, M., & Bayley, M. (2009). What do I say. A parent to parent guide on how to talk to children about sexuality. New York: Margaret Sanger Square.
Alford, S. (2008). Science and Success, Second Edition: Sex Education and Other Programs That Work to Prevent Teen Pregnacy, HIV & Sexually Transmitted Infections. Washington, D.C. [Online]
From:http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/programsthatwork/intro.htm.
Allen, B., Timmer, S.G., & Urquiza, A. j. (2016). Parent–Child Interaction Therapy for sexual concerns of maltreated children: A preliminary investigation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 56, 80–88.
Aviezer, O., Sagi-Schwartz, A., & Koren-Karie, N. (2003). Ecological constraints on the formation of infant–mother attachment relations: When maternal sensitivity becomes ineffective. Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 285–299.
Azar, S. T. (2002). Parenting and child maltreatment. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Social conditions and applied parenting. (2nd ed., Vol.4, pp. 361-388). Mahwah. NJ: Erbaum.
Baker, A.J.L., Schneiderman, M., & Parker, R. (2002). A survey of problematic sexualized behaviors of children in the New York City child welfare system: Estimates of problem, impact on services, and need for training. Journal of ChildSexual Abuse, 10(4), 67-80.
Beardslee, W. R. & Trustee, j. B. (2016). Parenting Matters: Supporting Parents of Children Ages 0-8. The National Academies Press.
Benasich, A.A., & Brooks-Gunn, J., (1996). Maternal attitudes and knowledge of child-rearing: Associations with family and child outcomes. Child Development, 67, 1186–1205.
Bornstein, M. H., Cot, L. R., Haynes, O. M., Hahn, C. S. & Park, Y. (2010). Parenting Knowledge: Experiential and Sociodemographic Factors in European American Mothers of Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1677-1693.
Bornstein, M. H. (2006). Some metatheoretical issues in culture, parenting, and developmental science. In Q. Jing, M. R. Rosenzweig, G. d'Ydewalle, H. Zhang, H. C. Chen, & K. Zhang (Eds.), Progress in psychological science around the world (pp. 245-260). UK: Psychology Press.
Bornstein, M.H., Hendricks, C., Hahn, C.S., Haynes, O.M., Painter, K.M., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. (2003). Contributors to self-perceived competence, satisfaction, investment, and role balance in maternal parenting: A multivariate ecological analysis. Parenting, 3, 285–326.
Both, C., Mitchell, S. K., Barnard, K. E., & Spieker, S. (1989). Development of maternal social skills in multiproblem families: effects on the mother-child relationship. Developmental psychology, 25(3), 403-412.
Bugental, D.B., & Happaney, K. (2002). Parental attributions. In: M. H. Bornstein, (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3, Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed. pp. 509-535). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bugental, D.B., & Johnston, C. (2000). Parental and child cognitions in the context of the family. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 35-344.
Cardoso, A., Silva, A. P., & Marin, H. (2015). Parenting competencies: development of an assessment instrument. Reference Journal of Nursing, 3(4), 7-16.
Chaffin, M., Berliner, L., Block, R., Johnson, T. C., Friedrich, W., Louis, D., & Silovsky, J. F. (2008). Report of the ATSA task force on children with sexual behavior problems. Child maltreatment, 13 (2), 199-218.
Chamberlin, R. W., Szumowski, E. K., & Zastowny, T. R. (1979). An evaluation of efforts to educate mothers about childhood development in pediatric office practices. American Journal of Public Health, 69, 875–886.
Conrad, B., Gross, D., Fogg, L., & Ruchala, P. (1992). Maternal confidence, knowledge, and quality of mother-toddler interactions: A preliminary study. Infant Mental Health Journal, 13, 353–362.
Dichtelmiller, M., Meisels, S. J., Plunkett, J. W., Bozynski, M. A., Claflin, C., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1992). The relationship of parental knowledge to the development of extremely low birth weight infants. Journal of Early Intervention, 16, 210–220.
Dix, T., & Grusec, J. (1985). Parent attribution processes in the socialization of children. In I. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequence for children (pp. 201-233). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Donahue, M.L., Pearl, R., & Herzog. A. (1997). Mothers’ referential communication with preschoolers: Effects of children’s syntax and mothers’ beliefs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 18,133–147.
Dosler, A. J. (2015). Raising children for a healthy sexual relationship in adulthood. [Online] From: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59084.
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent–child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin. 118, 108–132.
Field, T.M., Widmayer, S.M., Stringer, S., & Ignatoff, E. (1980). Teenage, low-class, black mothers and their preterm infants: An intervention and developmental follow-up. Child Development, 51, 426–436.
Fisher, T. D., Davis, C. M., Yarber, W. L., & Davis, S. L. (2010). Handbook ofSexuality-Related Measures. New York: Routledge.
Fuller, A. K. (2014). Sexual Behavior Problems in Child Welfare: Predictors of Reliable Change (Unpublished masterʼs thesis). Loyola University Chicago.
Goodnow, J. J., & Collins, W. A. (1990). Development according to parents: The nature, sources, and consequences of parents’ ideas. Erlbaum; London, England.
Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994) Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30, 4–19.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin. 108, 267–290.
Haffner, D. W. (2000). From Diapers to Dating: A Parent's Guide to Raising Sexually HealthyChildren From Infancy to Middle School. New York: Newmarket Press.
Haugaard, J., & Tilly, C. (1988). Characteristics predicting children’s responses to sexual encounters with other children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 12, 209- 218.
Hess, C. R., Teti, D. M., & Hussey-Gardner, B. (2004). Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk infants: The moderating role of parent knowledge of infant development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 423–437.
Hickson, G. B., & Clayton, E. W. (2002). Parents and their children’s doctors. In: M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5. Practical Parenting. (2nd ed., pp. 439-462). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Huang, K., Caughy, M. O., Genevro, J. L., & Miller, T. L. (2005). Maternal knowledge of child development and quality of parenting among White, African-American and Hispanic mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 149–170.
Johnston, C. (1996a). Addressing parent cognitions in interventions with families of disruptive children. In K.S. Dobson & K.D. Craig (Eds.), Advances in cognitive-behavioural therapy (pp. 193-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Johnston, C. (1996b). Parent characteristics and parent-child interactions in families of nonproblem children and ADHD children with higher and lower levels of oppositional-defiant behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 85-104.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E.J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of clinical and child psychology, 18 (2), 167-175.
Jones, T.L., & Prinz, R.J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341-363.
Kastbom ,A.A, Larsson, I., & Svedin, C.G., (2012). Parents´ Observations and Reports on the Sexual Behaviour of 7 to 13 Years Old Children. Reproductive System & Sexual Disorders, 1(2), 1-7.
Kirby, D., Laris, B.A., & Roller, L. (2005). The Impact of sex and HIV education programs on sexual behaviors of youth in developing and developed countries. Family Health International, Youth Research Working Paper, No. 2.
Lamb, S., & Coakley, M. (1993). “Normal” childhood sexual play and games: Differentiating play from abuse. Child abuse and Neglect, 17, 515-526.
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Never too early, never too late: Risk factors and successful interventions for serious and violent juvenile offenders. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention. 7, 7–30.
Lovejoy, M. C., Verda, M. R., & Hays, C. E. (1997). Convergent and discriminant validity of measures of parenting efficacy and control. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 366-376.
Mac-Phee, D. (1981). Manual for the knowledge of infant development inventory. University of North Carolina. Unpublished manuscript.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.B. (1982a). Parental beliefs about developmental processes. Human Development, 25, 192–200.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.B. (1982b). The relationship between parental beliefs and children’s cognitive development. In: L. M., Laosa & I. E. Sigel, Families as learning environments for children, (pp. 7-24). New York: Plenvm.
Melamed, B.G. (2002). Parenting the ill child. In Handbook of Parenting. 5, 329–348.
Miller, C.L., Miceli, P.J., Whitman, T.L., & Borkowski, J.G. (1996). Cognitive readiness to parent and intellectual-emotional development in children of adolescent mothers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 533–541.
Miller, S.A., Manhal, M., & Mee, L.L. (1991). Parental beliefs, parental accuracy, and children’s cognitive performance: A search for causal relations. Developmental Psychology, 27, 267–276.
Ocallaghan, M.F., Borkowski, J.G., Whitman, T.L., Maxwell, S.E., & Keogh, D. (1999). A model of adolescent parenting: The role of cognitive readiness to parent. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 203–225.
Ohan, j., Leung, D.W., & Johnston, C. (2000). The parenting sense of competence scale: evidence of a stable factor structure and validity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 32(4), 251-261.
Ontai, L., & Sano, Y. (2008). Low-income rural mother’s perceptions of parent confidence: The role of family health problems and partner status. Family Relations, 57, 324-334.
Rapee, R. M. (1997). Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression. Child Psychology Review, 17, 47–67.
Reis J., Barbera-Stein, L., & Bennett, S. (1986). Ecological determinants of parenting. Family Relations, 35, 547–554.
Ribas, R. C., Moura, M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2003). Socioeconomic status in Brazilian psychological research: II. Socioeconomic status and parenting knowledge. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 8(3), 385-392.
Rodrigue, J. R., Geffken, G. R., Clark, J. E., Hunt, F., & Fishel, P. (1994). Parenting satisfaction and efficacy among caregivers of children with diabetes. Children's Health Care, 23, 181-191.
Sommer, K., Whitman, T.L., Borkowski, J.G., Schellenbach, C., Maxwell, S., & Keogh, D. (1993).Cognitive readiness and adolescent parenting. Developmental Psychology, 29, 389–398.
Spence, S. (1998). Preventive interventions. In T. Ollendick (Ed.), Comprehensive clinical psychology, Children & adolescents: Clinical formulation and treatment. Amsterdam, New York: Elsevier, Pergamon.
Stevens, J.H. (1984). Child development knowledge and parenting skills. Family Relations, 33, 237–244.
Stoiber, K.C. (1992). Parents’ beliefs about their children’s cognitive, social, and motor functioning. Early Education and Development, 3, 244–257.
Stoiber, K.C., & Houghton, T.G. (1993). The relationship of adolescent mothers’ expectations, knowledge and beliefs to their young children’s coping behavior. Infant Mental Health Journal, 14, 61–79.
Suwansujarid, T., Vatanasomboon, P., Gaylord, N., & Lapvongwatana, P. (2013). Validation of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale in Fathers: Thai Version. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 44(5):916-26
Turnbull, T., Schaik, P. V., & Wersch, A. V. (2008).A review of parental involvement in sex education: The role for effective communication in British families. Health Education Journal, 67(3), 182-195.
Winter, L., Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. (2012). The Effect of Behavioral Family Intervention on Knowledge of Effective Parenting Strategies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(6), 881-890
_||_Adamson, D., Clemente, A., Little, W., Moody, L., Simms, M., & Bayley, M. (2009). What do I say. A parent to parent guide on how to talk to children about sexuality. New York: Margaret Sanger Square.
Alford, S. (2008). Science and Success, Second Edition: Sex Education and Other Programs That Work to Prevent Teen Pregnacy, HIV & Sexually Transmitted Infections. Washington, D.C. [Online]
From:http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/programsthatwork/intro.htm.
Allen, B., Timmer, S.G., & Urquiza, A. j. (2016). Parent–Child Interaction Therapy for sexual concerns of maltreated children: A preliminary investigation. Child Abuse & Neglect, 56, 80–88.
Aviezer, O., Sagi-Schwartz, A., & Koren-Karie, N. (2003). Ecological constraints on the formation of infant–mother attachment relations: When maternal sensitivity becomes ineffective. Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 285–299.
Azar, S. T. (2002). Parenting and child maltreatment. In M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Social conditions and applied parenting. (2nd ed., Vol.4, pp. 361-388). Mahwah. NJ: Erbaum.
Baker, A.J.L., Schneiderman, M., & Parker, R. (2002). A survey of problematic sexualized behaviors of children in the New York City child welfare system: Estimates of problem, impact on services, and need for training. Journal of ChildSexual Abuse, 10(4), 67-80.
Beardslee, W. R. & Trustee, j. B. (2016). Parenting Matters: Supporting Parents of Children Ages 0-8. The National Academies Press.
Benasich, A.A., & Brooks-Gunn, J., (1996). Maternal attitudes and knowledge of child-rearing: Associations with family and child outcomes. Child Development, 67, 1186–1205.
Bornstein, M. H., Cot, L. R., Haynes, O. M., Hahn, C. S. & Park, Y. (2010). Parenting Knowledge: Experiential and Sociodemographic Factors in European American Mothers of Young Children. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1677-1693.
Bornstein, M. H. (2006). Some metatheoretical issues in culture, parenting, and developmental science. In Q. Jing, M. R. Rosenzweig, G. d'Ydewalle, H. Zhang, H. C. Chen, & K. Zhang (Eds.), Progress in psychological science around the world (pp. 245-260). UK: Psychology Press.
Bornstein, M.H., Hendricks, C., Hahn, C.S., Haynes, O.M., Painter, K.M., & Tamis-LeMonda, C.S. (2003). Contributors to self-perceived competence, satisfaction, investment, and role balance in maternal parenting: A multivariate ecological analysis. Parenting, 3, 285–326.
Both, C., Mitchell, S. K., Barnard, K. E., & Spieker, S. (1989). Development of maternal social skills in multiproblem families: effects on the mother-child relationship. Developmental psychology, 25(3), 403-412.
Bugental, D.B., & Happaney, K. (2002). Parental attributions. In: M. H. Bornstein, (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 3, Being and becoming a parent (2nd ed. pp. 509-535). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bugental, D.B., & Johnston, C. (2000). Parental and child cognitions in the context of the family. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 35-344.
Cardoso, A., Silva, A. P., & Marin, H. (2015). Parenting competencies: development of an assessment instrument. Reference Journal of Nursing, 3(4), 7-16.
Chaffin, M., Berliner, L., Block, R., Johnson, T. C., Friedrich, W., Louis, D., & Silovsky, J. F. (2008). Report of the ATSA task force on children with sexual behavior problems. Child maltreatment, 13 (2), 199-218.
Chamberlin, R. W., Szumowski, E. K., & Zastowny, T. R. (1979). An evaluation of efforts to educate mothers about childhood development in pediatric office practices. American Journal of Public Health, 69, 875–886.
Conrad, B., Gross, D., Fogg, L., & Ruchala, P. (1992). Maternal confidence, knowledge, and quality of mother-toddler interactions: A preliminary study. Infant Mental Health Journal, 13, 353–362.
Dichtelmiller, M., Meisels, S. J., Plunkett, J. W., Bozynski, M. A., Claflin, C., & Mangelsdorf, S. C. (1992). The relationship of parental knowledge to the development of extremely low birth weight infants. Journal of Early Intervention, 16, 210–220.
Dix, T., & Grusec, J. (1985). Parent attribution processes in the socialization of children. In I. Sigel (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequence for children (pp. 201-233). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Donahue, M.L., Pearl, R., & Herzog. A. (1997). Mothers’ referential communication with preschoolers: Effects of children’s syntax and mothers’ beliefs. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 18,133–147.
Dosler, A. J. (2015). Raising children for a healthy sexual relationship in adulthood. [Online] From: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/59084.
Erel, O., & Burman, B. (1995). Interrelatedness of marital relations and parent–child relations: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin. 118, 108–132.
Field, T.M., Widmayer, S.M., Stringer, S., & Ignatoff, E. (1980). Teenage, low-class, black mothers and their preterm infants: An intervention and developmental follow-up. Child Development, 51, 426–436.
Fisher, T. D., Davis, C. M., Yarber, W. L., & Davis, S. L. (2010). Handbook ofSexuality-Related Measures. New York: Routledge.
Fuller, A. K. (2014). Sexual Behavior Problems in Child Welfare: Predictors of Reliable Change (Unpublished masterʼs thesis). Loyola University Chicago.
Goodnow, J. J., & Collins, W. A. (1990). Development according to parents: The nature, sources, and consequences of parents’ ideas. Erlbaum; London, England.
Grusec, J. E., & Goodnow, J. J. (1994) Impact of parental discipline methods on the child’s internalization of values: A reconceptualization of current points of view. Developmental Psychology, 30, 4–19.
Grych, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (1990). Marital conflict and children’s adjustment: A cognitive-contextual framework. Psychological Bulletin. 108, 267–290.
Haffner, D. W. (2000). From Diapers to Dating: A Parent's Guide to Raising Sexually HealthyChildren From Infancy to Middle School. New York: Newmarket Press.
Haugaard, J., & Tilly, C. (1988). Characteristics predicting children’s responses to sexual encounters with other children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 12, 209- 218.
Hess, C. R., Teti, D. M., & Hussey-Gardner, B. (2004). Self-efficacy and parenting of high-risk infants: The moderating role of parent knowledge of infant development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24, 423–437.
Hickson, G. B., & Clayton, E. W. (2002). Parents and their children’s doctors. In: M. H. Bornstein (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 5. Practical Parenting. (2nd ed., pp. 439-462). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Huang, K., Caughy, M. O., Genevro, J. L., & Miller, T. L. (2005). Maternal knowledge of child development and quality of parenting among White, African-American and Hispanic mothers. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 149–170.
Johnston, C. (1996a). Addressing parent cognitions in interventions with families of disruptive children. In K.S. Dobson & K.D. Craig (Eds.), Advances in cognitive-behavioural therapy (pp. 193-209). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Johnston, C. (1996b). Parent characteristics and parent-child interactions in families of nonproblem children and ADHD children with higher and lower levels of oppositional-defiant behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 24, 85-104.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E.J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of clinical and child psychology, 18 (2), 167-175.
Jones, T.L., & Prinz, R.J. (2005). Potential roles of parental self-efficacy in parent and child adjustment: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 25, 341-363.
Kastbom ,A.A, Larsson, I., & Svedin, C.G., (2012). Parents´ Observations and Reports on the Sexual Behaviour of 7 to 13 Years Old Children. Reproductive System & Sexual Disorders, 1(2), 1-7.
Kirby, D., Laris, B.A., & Roller, L. (2005). The Impact of sex and HIV education programs on sexual behaviors of youth in developing and developed countries. Family Health International, Youth Research Working Paper, No. 2.
Lamb, S., & Coakley, M. (1993). “Normal” childhood sexual play and games: Differentiating play from abuse. Child abuse and Neglect, 17, 515-526.
Loeber, R., & Farrington, D. P. (1998). Never too early, never too late: Risk factors and successful interventions for serious and violent juvenile offenders. Studies on Crime and Crime Prevention. 7, 7–30.
Lovejoy, M. C., Verda, M. R., & Hays, C. E. (1997). Convergent and discriminant validity of measures of parenting efficacy and control. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 366-376.
Mac-Phee, D. (1981). Manual for the knowledge of infant development inventory. University of North Carolina. Unpublished manuscript.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.B. (1982a). Parental beliefs about developmental processes. Human Development, 25, 192–200.
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, A.B. (1982b). The relationship between parental beliefs and children’s cognitive development. In: L. M., Laosa & I. E. Sigel, Families as learning environments for children, (pp. 7-24). New York: Plenvm.
Melamed, B.G. (2002). Parenting the ill child. In Handbook of Parenting. 5, 329–348.
Miller, C.L., Miceli, P.J., Whitman, T.L., & Borkowski, J.G. (1996). Cognitive readiness to parent and intellectual-emotional development in children of adolescent mothers. Developmental Psychology, 32, 533–541.
Miller, S.A., Manhal, M., & Mee, L.L. (1991). Parental beliefs, parental accuracy, and children’s cognitive performance: A search for causal relations. Developmental Psychology, 27, 267–276.
Ocallaghan, M.F., Borkowski, J.G., Whitman, T.L., Maxwell, S.E., & Keogh, D. (1999). A model of adolescent parenting: The role of cognitive readiness to parent. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 9, 203–225.
Ohan, j., Leung, D.W., & Johnston, C. (2000). The parenting sense of competence scale: evidence of a stable factor structure and validity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 32(4), 251-261.
Ontai, L., & Sano, Y. (2008). Low-income rural mother’s perceptions of parent confidence: The role of family health problems and partner status. Family Relations, 57, 324-334.
Rapee, R. M. (1997). Potential role of childrearing practices in the development of anxiety and depression. Child Psychology Review, 17, 47–67.
Reis J., Barbera-Stein, L., & Bennett, S. (1986). Ecological determinants of parenting. Family Relations, 35, 547–554.
Ribas, R. C., Moura, M., & Bornstein, M. H. (2003). Socioeconomic status in Brazilian psychological research: II. Socioeconomic status and parenting knowledge. Estudos de Psicologia (Natal), 8(3), 385-392.
Rodrigue, J. R., Geffken, G. R., Clark, J. E., Hunt, F., & Fishel, P. (1994). Parenting satisfaction and efficacy among caregivers of children with diabetes. Children's Health Care, 23, 181-191.
Sommer, K., Whitman, T.L., Borkowski, J.G., Schellenbach, C., Maxwell, S., & Keogh, D. (1993).Cognitive readiness and adolescent parenting. Developmental Psychology, 29, 389–398.
Spence, S. (1998). Preventive interventions. In T. Ollendick (Ed.), Comprehensive clinical psychology, Children & adolescents: Clinical formulation and treatment. Amsterdam, New York: Elsevier, Pergamon.
Stevens, J.H. (1984). Child development knowledge and parenting skills. Family Relations, 33, 237–244.
Stoiber, K.C. (1992). Parents’ beliefs about their children’s cognitive, social, and motor functioning. Early Education and Development, 3, 244–257.
Stoiber, K.C., & Houghton, T.G. (1993). The relationship of adolescent mothers’ expectations, knowledge and beliefs to their young children’s coping behavior. Infant Mental Health Journal, 14, 61–79.
Suwansujarid, T., Vatanasomboon, P., Gaylord, N., & Lapvongwatana, P. (2013). Validation of the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale in Fathers: Thai Version. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health, 44(5):916-26
Turnbull, T., Schaik, P. V., & Wersch, A. V. (2008).A review of parental involvement in sex education: The role for effective communication in British families. Health Education Journal, 67(3), 182-195.
Winter, L., Morawska, A., & Sanders, M. (2012). The Effect of Behavioral Family Intervention on Knowledge of Effective Parenting Strategies. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 21(6), 881-890