Heterogeneous Photocatalysts Based on g-C₃N₄: Innovations and Applications in Sustainable Energy Conversion and Storage
Subject Areas : Effective and expandable solutions to control and eliminate environmental pollutionZahra Mohammadpour Koselar 1 , Zohreh Ghazi Tabatabaei 2 *
1 - Department of Chemistry, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahar, Iran
2 - Department of Chemistry, Ahar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ahar, Iran
Keywords: Graphitic carbon nitride, Heterogeneous photocatalyst, Sustainable technologies, Photocatalyst design,
Abstract :
Heterogeneous photocatalysts are utilized as a novel technology in energy conversion and storage, particularly in sustainable and green solar fuels, as well as in a variety of environmental applications. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄) photocatalysts form a specific group of heterogeneous photocatalysts due to their unique physicochemical, optical, and electrical properties. In this review, the fundamental mechanisms of heterogeneous photocatalysts, their advantages, challenges, and the design of g-C₃N₄-based photocatalysts are examined. The structural properties, surface physicochemical characteristics, surface stability, as well as their electrochemical, photoelectrochemical, and optical properties are highlighted. Key applications, such as pollutant degradation, carbon dioxide reduction, certain organic transformations, and disinfection, are also addressed. By reviewing significant advancements in this field, new opportunities for the design and fabrication of highly efficient g-C₃N₄-based photocatalysts for diverse applications are expected to arise.
References:
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[2] Bard, A.J., 1979, Photoelectrochemistry and heterogeneous photo-catalysis at semiconductors, Journal of Photochemistry, 10, 59.
[3] Kato, H., Hori, M., Konta, R., Shimodaira, Y., Kudo, A., 2004, Construction of Z-scheme type heterogeneous photocatalysis systems for water splitting into H2 and O2 under visible light irradiation, Chemistry Letters, 33, 1348.
[4] Wang, C.-C., Li, J.-R., Lv, X.-L., Zhang, Y.-Q., Guo, G., 2014, Photocatalytic organic pollutants degradation in metal-organic frameworks, Energy & Environmental Science, 7, 2831.
[5] Li, X., Wen, J., Low, J., Fang, Y., Yu, J., 2014, Design and fabrication of semiconductor photocatalyst for photocatalytic reduction of CO2 to solar fuel, Science China Materials, 57, 70.
[6] Lang, X., Chen, X., Zhao, J., 2014, Heterogeneous visible light photocatalysis for selective organic transformations, Chemical Society Reviews, 43, 473.
[7] Masih, D., Ma, Y,. Rohani, S., 2017, Graphitic C3N4 based noble-metal-free photocatalyst systems: A review, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 206, 556.
[8] Patnaik, S., Sahoo, D.P., Parida, K., 2018, An overview on Ag modified g-C3N4 based nanostructured materials for energy and environmental applications, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 1297.
[9] Ran, J., Gao, G., Li, F.-T., Ma, T.-Y., Du, A., Qiao, S.-Z., 2017, Ti3C2 MXene co-catalyst on metal sulfide photo-absorbers for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic hydrogen production, Nature Communications, 8, 13907.
[10] Kumar, S., Karthikeyan, S., Lee, A.F., 2018, g-C3N4-based nanomaterials for visible light-driven photocatalysis, Catalysts, 8, 74.
[11] Chen, F., Yang, H., Wang, X., Yu, H., 2017, Facile synthesis and enhanced photocatalytic H2-evolution performance of NiS2-modified g-C3N4 photocatalysts, Chinese Journal of Catalysis, 38, 296.
[12] Cao, S., Huang, Q., Zhu, B., Yu, J., 2017, Trace-level phosphorus and sodium co-doping of g-C3N4 for enhanced photocatalytic H2 production, Journal of Power Sources, 351, 151.
[13] Gomari, K.A., Hafeez, H.Y., Mohammed, J., Dankawu, U.M., Ndikilar, C.E., Suleiman, A.B., 2024, A recent development and future prospect of g–C3N4–based photocatalyst for stable hydrogen (H2) generation via photocatalytic water-splitting, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 85, 598.
[14] Hao, P., Chen, Z., Yan, Y., Shi, W., Guo, F., 2024, Recent advances, application and prospect in g-C3N4-based S-scheme heterojunction photocatalysts, Separation and Purification Technology, 330, 125302.
[15] Li, Y., Zhou, M., Cheng, B., Shao, Y., 2020, Recent advances in g-C3N4-based heterojunction photocatalysts, Journal of Materials Science & Technology, 56, 1.
[16] Yang, X., Ye, Y., Sun, J., Li, Z., Ping, J., Sun, X., 2022, Recent advances in g-C3N4‐based photocatalysts for pollutant degradation and bacterial disinfection: Design strategies, mechanisms, and applications, Small, 18, 2105089.
[17] Xing, J., Wang, N., Li, X., Wang, J., Taiwaikuli, M., Huang, X., Wang, T., Zhou, L. Hao, H., 2022, Synthesis and modifications of g-C3N4-based materials and their applications in wastewater pollutants removal, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 10, 108782.
[18] Sohail, M., Anwar, U., Taha, T.A., Qazi, H.I.A., Al-Sehemi, A.G., Ullah, S., Algarni, H., Ahmed, I.M., Amin, M.A., Palamanit, A. Iqbal, W., Alharthi, S., Nawawi, W.I., Ajmal, Z., Ali, H., Hayat, A., 2022, Nanostructured materials based on g-C3N4 for enhanced photocatalytic activity and potentials application: A review, Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 15, 104070.
[19] Yan, Y., Meng, Q., Tian, L., Cai, Y., Zhang, Y. Chen, Y., 2024, Engineering of g-C3N4 for photocatalytic hydrogen production: A review, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25, 8842.
[20] Ismael, M., 2020, A review on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) based nanocomposites: Synthesis, categories, and their application in photocatalysis, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 846, 156446.
[21] He, F., Wang, Z., Li, Y., Peng, S., Liu, B., 2020, The nonmetal modulation of composition and morphology of g-C3N4-based photocatalysts, Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 269, 118828.
[22] Hayat, A., Sohail, M., El Jery, A., Al‐Zaydi, K.M., Alshammari, K.F., Khan, J., Ali, H., Ajmal, Z., Taha, T.A., Ud Din, I., Altamimi, R., Hussein, M.A., Al-Hadeethi, Y., Orooji, Y., Ansari, M.Z., 2023, Different dimensionalities, morphological advancements and engineering of g-C3N4‐based nanomaterials for energy conversion and storage, The Chemical Record, 23, e202200171.
[23] Song, B., Zeng, Z., Zeng, G., Gong, J., Xiao, R., Ye, S., Chen, M., Lai, C., Xu, P., Tang, X., 2019, Powerful combination of g-C3N4 and LDHs for enhanced photocatalytic performance: A review of strategy, synthesis, and applications, Advances in Colloid and Interface Science, 272, 101999.
[24] Wudil, Y.S., Ahmad, U.F., Gondal, M.A., Al-Osta, M.A., Almohammedi, A., Sa'id, R.S., Hrahsheh, F., Haruna, K., Mohamed, M.J.S., 2023, Tuning of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) for photocatalysis: A critical review, Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 16, 104542.
[25] Wang, J., Wang, S., 2022, A critical review on graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4)-based materials: Preparation, modification and environmental application, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 453, 214338.
[26] Li, Y., Gu, M., Zhang, X., Fan, J., Lv, K., Carabineiro, S.A.C., Dong, F., 2020, 2D g-C3N4 for advancement of photo-generated carrier dynamics: Status and challenges, Materials Today, 41, 270.
[27] Huang, H., Jiang, L., Yang, J., Zhou, S., Yuan, X., Liang, J., Wang, H., Wang, H., Bu, Y., Li, H., 2023, Synthesis and modification of ultrathin g-C3N4 for photocatalytic energy and environmental applications, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 173, 113110.
[28] Khan, M.A., Mutahir, S., Shaheen, I., Qunhui, Y., Bououdina, M., Humayun, M., 2025, Recent advances over the doped g-C3N4 in photocatalysis: A review, Coordination Chemistry Reviews, 522, 216227.
[29] Gorai, D.K., Kuila, S.K., Kumar, A., Ahmad, M.I., Kundu, T.K., 2023, Insight into the effect of Li/P co-doping on the electronic structure and photocatalytic performance of g-C3N4 by the first principle, Applied Surface Science, 623, 157031.
[30] Liu, X., Kang, W., Zeng, W., Zhang, Y., Qi, L., Ling, F., Fang, L., Chen, Q., Zhou, M., 2020, Structural, electronic and photocatalytic properties of g-C3N4 with intrinsic defects: A first-principles hybrid functional investigation, Applied Surface Science, 499, 143994.
[31] Liu, J., Cheng, B., 2018, New understanding of photocatalytic properties of zigzag and armchair g-C3N4 nanotubes from electronic structures and carrier effective mass, Applied Surface Science, 430, 348.
[32] Xu, Q., Ma, D., Yang, S., Tian, Z., Cheng, B., Fan, J., 2019, Novel g-C3N4/g-C3N4 S-scheme isotype heterojunction for improved photocatalytic hydrogen generation, Applied Surface Science, 495,143555.
[33] Li, Y., Yang, M., Xing, Y., Liu, X., Yang, Y., Wang, X., Song, S., 2017, Preparation of carbon‐rich g-C3N4 nanosheets with enhanced visible light utilization for efficient photocatalytic hydrogen production, Small, 13, 1701552.
[34] Bandyopadhyay, A., Ghosh, D., Kaley, N.M., Pati, S.K., 2017, Photocatalytic activity of g-C3N4 quantum dots in visible light: Effect of physicochemical modifications, The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 121, 1982.
[35] Dong, S., Cai, W., Sheng, L., Wang, W., Liu, H., Xia, J., 2020, Combined effect of physicochemical factors on the retention and transport of g-C3N4 in porous media, Chemosphere, 256, 127100.
[36] Dong, G., Zhang, Y., Pan, Q., Qiu, J., 2014, A fantastic graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) material: Electronic structure, photocatalytic and photoelectronic properties, Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C: Photochemistry Reviews, 20, 33.
[37] Pomilla, F.R., Cortes, M.A.L.R.M., Hamilton, J.W.J., Molinari, R., Barbieri, G., Marcì, G., Palmisano, L., Sharma, P.K., Brown, A., Byrne, J.A., 2018, An Investigation into the stability of graphitic C3N4 as a photocatalyst for CO2 reduction, The Journal of Physical Chemistry C, 122, 28727.
[38] Pawar, R.C., Kang, S., Park, J.H., Kim, J.-H., Ahn, S., Lee, C.S., 2016, Room-temperature synthesis of nanoporous 1D microrods of graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) with highly enhanced photocatalytic activity and stability, Scientific Reports, 6, 31147.
[39] Cherkasov, N., Ibhadon, A.O., Fitzpatrick, P., 2015, A review of the existing and alternative methods for greener nitrogen fixation, Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, 90, 24.
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