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Manuscript ID : EJMP-1511-1067 (R2) Visit : 152 Page: 1 - 14

10.30495/ejmp.2016.694506

Article Type: Original Research

Study the effect of long-term drought stress on the quantity and quality of essential oil of different species of Thymus spp

Subject Areas : Medicinal Plants

بهروز شیران 1 , کاظم یوسف زاده 2 , سعدالله هوشمند 3 , حسین زینلی 4 , جواد هادیان 5 , محمد مهدی قیصری 6

1 - عضو هیئت علمی دانشگاه شهرکرد
2 - دانشجوی دکتری
3 - عضو هیئت علمی دانشگاه شهرکرد
4 - عضو هیئت علمی مرکز تحقیقات کشاورزی و منابع طبیعی استان اصفهان
5 - عضو هیئت علمی پژوهشکده گیاهان و مواد اولیه دارویی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی
6 - عضو هیئت علمی دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد اصفهان

Received: 2015-11-15 Accepted : 2016-01-10 Published : 2016-02-20

Keywords:

Abstract :

References:


  1. Adams, R.P. 2001. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy: Carol Stream, IL.: Allured Publishing Co.
    2.
  2. Akhzari, D. and Pessarakli, M. 2015. Effect of drought stress on total Protein, essential oil content, and physiological traits of Levisticum Officinale Journal of Plant Nutrition, (just-accepted).
    3.
  3. Alavi-Samani, S.M., Kachouei, M.A. and Pirbalouti, A.G. 2015. Growth, yield, chemical composition, and antioxidant activity of essential oils from two thyme species under foliar application of jasmonic acid and water deficit conditions. Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology, 56(4): 411-420.
    4.
  4. Alizadeh, A. 2007. Soil physics: Astan ghods publication, Imam Reza University, Mashhad. 440 p. In Persian.
    5.
  5. Amiri, H., Emami, H. and Abdollahi, F. 2015. Effects of drought stress on the essential oil content and composition of Dill (Anethum graveolens L). Journal of plant process and function, 3(10): 143-150. (In Persian).
    6.
  6. Arazmjo, A., Heidari, M., Ghanbari, A., Siahsar, B. and Ahmadian, A. 2010. Effects of three types of fertilizers on essential oil, photosynthetic pigments, and osmoregulators in chamomile under drought stress. Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences, 3(1): 23-33. (In Persian).
    7.
  7. Ashiri, F., Khoskhoi, M., SaharKhiz, M., Firouzi, O. and Javidnia, K. 2010. Effects of water deficit stress on morphological characteristics, chlorophyll and peroline contents and antioxidant activity of garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Iranian Journal of Horticultural Science and Technology, 11(2): 163-174. (In Persian).
    8.
  8. Aziz, E.E. and Hendawy, S. 2008. Effect of soil type and irrigation intervals on plant growth, essential oil yield and constituents of Thymus vulgaris plant. American Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, 4: 443-450.
    9.
  9. Aznar, A., Fernández, P.S., Periago, P.M. and Palop, A. 2013. Antimicrobial activity of nisin, thymol, carvacrol and cymene against growth of Candida lusitaniae. Food Science and Technology International, 21(1): 72-79.
    10.
  10. Babaee, K., AminiDehaghi, M., ModaresSanavi, S.A.M. and Jabbari, R. 2010. Water deficit effect on morphology, prolin content and thymol percentage of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 26(2): 239-251. In Persian.
    11.
  11. Baher, Z.F., Mirza, M., Ghorbanli, M. and Bagher Rezaii, M. 2002. The influence of water stress on plant height, herbal and essential oil yield and composition in Satureja hortensis Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17(4): 275-277.
    12.
  12. Bahreininejad, B., Razmjoo, J. and Mirza, M. 2013. Influence of water stress on morpho-physiological and phytochemical traits in Thymus daenensis. International Journal of Plant Production, 7(1): 151-166.
    13.
  13. Bahreininejad, B., Razmjoo, J. and Mirza, M. 2014. Effect of Water Stress on Productivity and Essential Oil Content and Composition of Thymus carmanicus. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 17(5): 717-725.
    14.
  14. Bettaieb, I., Zakhama, N., Wannes, W.A., Kchouk, M.E. and Marzouk, B. 2009 .Water deficit effects on Salvia officinalis fatty acids and essential oils composition. Scientia Horticulturae, 120(2): 271-275.
    15.
  15. Bryant, J.P., Chapin III, F.S. and Klein, D.R. 1983. Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos, 357-368.
    16.
  16. Chen, Y., Guo, Q., Liu, L., Liao, L. and Zhu, Z. 2011. Influence of fertilization and drought stress on the growth and production of secondary metabolites in Prunella vulgaris J Med Plant Res, 5(9): 1749.
    17.
  17. Davazdahemami, S., Sefidcon, F., Rezaei, M. and Naderi, M., 2014. The effect of drought stress on quantitative and qualitative characters of essential oil and carvacrol yield in two endemic species of savory (satureja bachtiarica and khuzistarica) in Iran. Technical Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 4(3): 143-146.
    18.
  18. Fatima, S., Abad Farooqi, A., Ansari, S. and Sharma, S., 1999. Effect of water stress on growth and essential oil metabolism in Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa) cultivars. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 11(4): 491-496.
    19.
  19. Figueiredo, A.C., Barroso, J.G., Pedro, L.G. and Scheffer, J.J. 2008. Factors affecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile components and essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 23(4): 213-226.
    20.
  20. Hale, B.K., Herms, D.A., Hansen, R.C., Clausen, T.P. and Arnold, D. Effects of drought stress and nutrient availability on dry matter allocation, phenolic glycosides, and rapid induced resistance of poplar to two lymantriid defoliators. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31(11): 2601-2620.
    21.
  21. Herms, D.A. and Mattson, W.J., 1992. The dilemma of plants: to grow or defend. Quarterly review of biology, 283-335.
    22.
  22. Holtzer, T.O., Archer, T.L. and Norman, J.M. 1988. Host plant suitability in relation to water stress. In Plant Stress Interactions. E.A. Heinrichs, editor. Willey-lnter Science., New York, USA, 111-137 pp.
    23.
  23. Jamzad, Z., 2009. Thymus and Satureja species of Iran. Tehran: Research institute of Forest and Rangelands.171 p. (In Persian).
    24.
  24. Jordán, M.J., Martínez, R.M., Cases, M.A. and Sotomayor, J.A. 2003. Watering level effect on Thymus hyemalis Lange essential oil yield and composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(18): 5420-5427.
    25.
  25. Kalvandi, R., Mirza, M., Atri, M., HesamzadehHejazi, M., Jamzad, Z. and Safikhani, K., 2014. Introduction of seven new chemotypes of Thymus eriocalyx (Ronniger) Jalas. in Iran based upon the variation of essential oil composition in different populations Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 30(1): 101-122. (In Persian).
    26.
  26. Keefover‐Ring, K., Thompson, J.D. and Linhart, Y.B., 2009. Beyond six scents: defining a seventh Thymus vulgaris chemotype new to southern France by ethanol extraction. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 24(3): 117-122.
    27.
  27. Kleinwächter, M. and Selmar, D. 2015. New insights explain that drought stress enhances the quality of spice and medicinal plants: potential applications. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(1): 121-131.
    28.
  28. Kleinwächter, M., Paulsen, J., Bloem, E., Schnug, E. and Selmar, D. 2015. Moderate drought and signal transducer induced biosynthesis of relevant secondary metabolites in thyme (Thymus vulgaris), greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum). Industrial Crops and Products, 64:158-166.
    29.
  29. Kovats,V.E.,1958. gas‐ chromatographische charakterisierung organischer verbindungen. teil 1: retentionsindices aliphatischer halogenide, alkohole, aldehyde und ketone. helvetica chimica acta, 41(7): 1915-1932.
    30.
  30. Laribi, B., Bettaieb, I., Kouki, K., Sahli, A., Mougou, A. and Marzouk, B., 2009. Water deficit effects on caraway (Carum carvi ) growth, essential oil and fatty acid composition. Industrial Crops and Products, 30(3): 372-379.
    31.
  31. Letchamo, W. and Gosselin, A., 1995. Effects of HPS supplemental lighting and soil water levels on growth, essential oil content and composition of two thyme (Thymus vulgaris) clonal selections. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 75(1): 231-238.
    32.
  32. Letchamo, W. and Gosselin, A. 1996. Transpiration, essential oil glands, epicuticular wax and morphology of Thymus vulgaris are influenced by light intensity and water supply. Journal of Horticultural Science. 71: 123–134.
    33.
  33. Mahdavi, S., Karimzadeh, G. and arefi, H.M., 2009. Chromosomal variation studies in some Thymus medicinal plant species. Iranian Journal of Horticulture science, 40(1): 29-36. In persian.
    34.
  34. Malekpoor, F., Salimi, A. and Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A. 2015. Effects of Jasmonic acid on essential oil yield and chemical compositions of two Iranian landraces of basil (Ocimum basilicum) under reduced irrigation. Journal of Herbal Drugs (An International Journal on Medicinal Herbs), 6(1): 13-21.
    35.
  35. Mewes, S., Krüger, H. and Pank, F. 2008. Physiological, morphological, chemical and genomic diversities of different origins of thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 55(8): 1303.
    36.
  36. NaghdiBadi, H. and Makkizadeh, M. 2003. Review of common thyme (Thymus Vulgaris ). Journal of medicinal plants, 3(7): 1-12. (In Persian).
    37.
  37. Pirbalouti, A.G., Samani, M.R., Hashemi, M. and Zeinali, H. 2014. Salicylic acid affects growth, essential oil and chemical compositions of thyme (Thymus daenensis) under reduced irrigation. Plant growth regulation, 72(3): 289-301.
    38.
  38. Rustaiee, A., Sefidkon, F., Tabatabaei, S.M.F., Omidbaigi, R. and Mirahmadi, S.F. 2011. Chemical Polymorphism of Essential Oils from Five Populations of Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis Endemic to Iran. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 23(3): 6-11.
    39.
  39. Safaei-Ghomi, J., Ebrahimabadi, A.H., Djafari-Bidgoli, Z. and Batooli, H. 2009. GC/MS analysis and in vitro antioxidant activity of essential oil and methanol extracts of Thymus caramanicus and its main constituent carvacrol. Food Chemistry, 115(4): 1524-1528.
    40.
  40. Said-Al Ahl, H., Omer, E. and Naguib, N. 2009. Effect of water stress and nitrogen fertilizer on herb and essential oil of oregano. Int. Agrophysics, 23:269-275.
    41.
  41. Selmar, D. and Kleinwächter, M. 2013. Influencing the product quality by deliberately applying drought stress during the cultivation of medicinal plants. Industrial Crops and Products, 42:558-566.
    42.
  42. Simon, J.E., Reiss-Bubenheim, D., Joly, R.J. and Charles, D.J., 1992. Water stress-induced alterations in essential oil content and composition of sweet basil. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 4(1): 71-75.
    43.
  43. Thompson, J.D., Chalchat, J.-C., Michet, A., Linhart, Y.B. and Ehlers, B. 2003. Qualitative and quantitative variation in monoterpene co-occurrence and composition in the essential oil of Thymus vulgaris Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29(4): 859-880.
    44.
  44. Thompson, J.D., Tarayre, M., Gauthier, P., Litrico, I. and Linhart, Y.B. 2004. Multiple genetic contributions to plant performance in Thymus vulgaris. Journal of Ecology, 92(1): 45-56.
    45.
  45. Turtola, S., Manninen, A.-M., Rikala, R. and Kainulainen, P. 2003. Drought stress alters the concentration of wood terpenoids in Scots pine and Norway spruce seedlings. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29(9): 1981-1995.
    46.
  46. Uzilday, B., Turkan, I., Sekmen, A., Ozgur, R. and Karakaya, H. 2012. Comparison of ROS formation and antioxidant enzymes in Cleome gynandra (C4) and Cleome spinosa (C3) under drought stress. Plant Science, 18:259-70.
    47.
  47. Vaičiulytė, V. and Ložienė, K. 2015. Metabolomic analysis and effects of meteorological factors on phenolic and non-phenolic chemotypes of Thymus pulegioides cultured in the same locality. Industrial Crops and Products, 77:491-498.
    48.
  48. Yazdani, D., Shahnazi, S., Jamshidi, A., Rezazadeh, S. and mojab, F. 2006. Assessment of essential oils of qualitative and quantitative changes of thyme and tarragon in the fresh and dry parts of the plant. Medicinal Plant Journal, 17(4): 7-15.
    49.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

_||_

  1. Adams, R.P. 2001. Identification of essential oil components by gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy: Carol Stream, IL.: Allured Publishing Co.
    2.
  2. Akhzari, D. and Pessarakli, M. 2015. Effect of drought stress on total Protein, essential oil content, and physiological traits of Levisticum Officinale Journal of Plant Nutrition, (just-accepted).
    3.
  3. Alavi-Samani, S.M., Kachouei, M.A. and Pirbalouti, A.G. 2015. Growth, yield, chemical composition, and antioxidant activity of essential oils from two thyme species under foliar application of jasmonic acid and water deficit conditions. Horticulture, Environment, and Biotechnology, 56(4): 411-420.
    4.
  4. Alizadeh, A. 2007. Soil physics: Astan ghods publication, Imam Reza University, Mashhad. 440 p. In Persian.
    5.
  5. Amiri, H., Emami, H. and Abdollahi, F. 2015. Effects of drought stress on the essential oil content and composition of Dill (Anethum graveolens L). Journal of plant process and function, 3(10): 143-150. (In Persian).
    6.
  6. Arazmjo, A., Heidari, M., Ghanbari, A., Siahsar, B. and Ahmadian, A. 2010. Effects of three types of fertilizers on essential oil, photosynthetic pigments, and osmoregulators in chamomile under drought stress. Environmental Stresses in Crop Sciences, 3(1): 23-33. (In Persian).
    7.
  7. Ashiri, F., Khoskhoi, M., SaharKhiz, M., Firouzi, O. and Javidnia, K. 2010. Effects of water deficit stress on morphological characteristics, chlorophyll and peroline contents and antioxidant activity of garden thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Iranian Journal of Horticultural Science and Technology, 11(2): 163-174. (In Persian).
    8.
  8. Aziz, E.E. and Hendawy, S. 2008. Effect of soil type and irrigation intervals on plant growth, essential oil yield and constituents of Thymus vulgaris plant. American Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, 4: 443-450.
    9.
  9. Aznar, A., Fernández, P.S., Periago, P.M. and Palop, A. 2013. Antimicrobial activity of nisin, thymol, carvacrol and cymene against growth of Candida lusitaniae. Food Science and Technology International, 21(1): 72-79.
    10.
  10. Babaee, K., AminiDehaghi, M., ModaresSanavi, S.A.M. and Jabbari, R. 2010. Water deficit effect on morphology, prolin content and thymol percentage of Thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 26(2): 239-251. In Persian.
    11.
  11. Baher, Z.F., Mirza, M., Ghorbanli, M. and Bagher Rezaii, M. 2002. The influence of water stress on plant height, herbal and essential oil yield and composition in Satureja hortensis Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 17(4): 275-277.
    12.
  12. Bahreininejad, B., Razmjoo, J. and Mirza, M. 2013. Influence of water stress on morpho-physiological and phytochemical traits in Thymus daenensis. International Journal of Plant Production, 7(1): 151-166.
    13.
  13. Bahreininejad, B., Razmjoo, J. and Mirza, M. 2014. Effect of Water Stress on Productivity and Essential Oil Content and Composition of Thymus carmanicus. Journal of Essential Oil Bearing Plants, 17(5): 717-725.
    14.
  14. Bettaieb, I., Zakhama, N., Wannes, W.A., Kchouk, M.E. and Marzouk, B. 2009 .Water deficit effects on Salvia officinalis fatty acids and essential oils composition. Scientia Horticulturae, 120(2): 271-275.
    15.
  15. Bryant, J.P., Chapin III, F.S. and Klein, D.R. 1983. Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos, 357-368.
    16.
  16. Chen, Y., Guo, Q., Liu, L., Liao, L. and Zhu, Z. 2011. Influence of fertilization and drought stress on the growth and production of secondary metabolites in Prunella vulgaris J Med Plant Res, 5(9): 1749.
    17.
  17. Davazdahemami, S., Sefidcon, F., Rezaei, M. and Naderi, M., 2014. The effect of drought stress on quantitative and qualitative characters of essential oil and carvacrol yield in two endemic species of savory (satureja bachtiarica and khuzistarica) in Iran. Technical Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 4(3): 143-146.
    18.
  18. Fatima, S., Abad Farooqi, A., Ansari, S. and Sharma, S., 1999. Effect of water stress on growth and essential oil metabolism in Cymbopogon martinii (palmarosa) cultivars. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 11(4): 491-496.
    19.
  19. Figueiredo, A.C., Barroso, J.G., Pedro, L.G. and Scheffer, J.J. 2008. Factors affecting secondary metabolite production in plants: volatile components and essential oils. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 23(4): 213-226.
    20.
  20. Hale, B.K., Herms, D.A., Hansen, R.C., Clausen, T.P. and Arnold, D. Effects of drought stress and nutrient availability on dry matter allocation, phenolic glycosides, and rapid induced resistance of poplar to two lymantriid defoliators. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 31(11): 2601-2620.
    21.
  21. Herms, D.A. and Mattson, W.J., 1992. The dilemma of plants: to grow or defend. Quarterly review of biology, 283-335.
    22.
  22. Holtzer, T.O., Archer, T.L. and Norman, J.M. 1988. Host plant suitability in relation to water stress. In Plant Stress Interactions. E.A. Heinrichs, editor. Willey-lnter Science., New York, USA, 111-137 pp.
    23.
  23. Jamzad, Z., 2009. Thymus and Satureja species of Iran. Tehran: Research institute of Forest and Rangelands.171 p. (In Persian).
    24.
  24. Jordán, M.J., Martínez, R.M., Cases, M.A. and Sotomayor, J.A. 2003. Watering level effect on Thymus hyemalis Lange essential oil yield and composition. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(18): 5420-5427.
    25.
  25. Kalvandi, R., Mirza, M., Atri, M., HesamzadehHejazi, M., Jamzad, Z. and Safikhani, K., 2014. Introduction of seven new chemotypes of Thymus eriocalyx (Ronniger) Jalas. in Iran based upon the variation of essential oil composition in different populations Iranian Journal of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, 30(1): 101-122. (In Persian).
    26.
  26. Keefover‐Ring, K., Thompson, J.D. and Linhart, Y.B., 2009. Beyond six scents: defining a seventh Thymus vulgaris chemotype new to southern France by ethanol extraction. Flavour and Fragrance Journal, 24(3): 117-122.
    27.
  27. Kleinwächter, M. and Selmar, D. 2015. New insights explain that drought stress enhances the quality of spice and medicinal plants: potential applications. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 35(1): 121-131.
    28.
  28. Kleinwächter, M., Paulsen, J., Bloem, E., Schnug, E. and Selmar, D. 2015. Moderate drought and signal transducer induced biosynthesis of relevant secondary metabolites in thyme (Thymus vulgaris), greater celandine (Chelidonium majus) and parsley (Petroselinum crispum). Industrial Crops and Products, 64:158-166.
    29.
  29. Kovats,V.E.,1958. gas‐ chromatographische charakterisierung organischer verbindungen. teil 1: retentionsindices aliphatischer halogenide, alkohole, aldehyde und ketone. helvetica chimica acta, 41(7): 1915-1932.
    30.
  30. Laribi, B., Bettaieb, I., Kouki, K., Sahli, A., Mougou, A. and Marzouk, B., 2009. Water deficit effects on caraway (Carum carvi ) growth, essential oil and fatty acid composition. Industrial Crops and Products, 30(3): 372-379.
    31.
  31. Letchamo, W. and Gosselin, A., 1995. Effects of HPS supplemental lighting and soil water levels on growth, essential oil content and composition of two thyme (Thymus vulgaris) clonal selections. Canadian Journal of Plant Science, 75(1): 231-238.
    32.
  32. Letchamo, W. and Gosselin, A. 1996. Transpiration, essential oil glands, epicuticular wax and morphology of Thymus vulgaris are influenced by light intensity and water supply. Journal of Horticultural Science. 71: 123–134.
    33.
  33. Mahdavi, S., Karimzadeh, G. and arefi, H.M., 2009. Chromosomal variation studies in some Thymus medicinal plant species. Iranian Journal of Horticulture science, 40(1): 29-36. In persian.
    34.
  34. Malekpoor, F., Salimi, A. and Ghasemi Pirbalouti, A. 2015. Effects of Jasmonic acid on essential oil yield and chemical compositions of two Iranian landraces of basil (Ocimum basilicum) under reduced irrigation. Journal of Herbal Drugs (An International Journal on Medicinal Herbs), 6(1): 13-21.
    35.
  35. Mewes, S., Krüger, H. and Pank, F. 2008. Physiological, morphological, chemical and genomic diversities of different origins of thyme (Thymus vulgaris). Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution, 55(8): 1303.
    36.
  36. NaghdiBadi, H. and Makkizadeh, M. 2003. Review of common thyme (Thymus Vulgaris ). Journal of medicinal plants, 3(7): 1-12. (In Persian).
    37.
  37. Pirbalouti, A.G., Samani, M.R., Hashemi, M. and Zeinali, H. 2014. Salicylic acid affects growth, essential oil and chemical compositions of thyme (Thymus daenensis) under reduced irrigation. Plant growth regulation, 72(3): 289-301.
    38.
  38. Rustaiee, A., Sefidkon, F., Tabatabaei, S.M.F., Omidbaigi, R. and Mirahmadi, S.F. 2011. Chemical Polymorphism of Essential Oils from Five Populations of Thymus daenensis subsp. daenensis Endemic to Iran. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 23(3): 6-11.
    39.
  39. Safaei-Ghomi, J., Ebrahimabadi, A.H., Djafari-Bidgoli, Z. and Batooli, H. 2009. GC/MS analysis and in vitro antioxidant activity of essential oil and methanol extracts of Thymus caramanicus and its main constituent carvacrol. Food Chemistry, 115(4): 1524-1528.
    40.
  40. Said-Al Ahl, H., Omer, E. and Naguib, N. 2009. Effect of water stress and nitrogen fertilizer on herb and essential oil of oregano. Int. Agrophysics, 23:269-275.
    41.
  41. Selmar, D. and Kleinwächter, M. 2013. Influencing the product quality by deliberately applying drought stress during the cultivation of medicinal plants. Industrial Crops and Products, 42:558-566.
    42.
  42. Simon, J.E., Reiss-Bubenheim, D., Joly, R.J. and Charles, D.J., 1992. Water stress-induced alterations in essential oil content and composition of sweet basil. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 4(1): 71-75.
    43.
  43. Thompson, J.D., Chalchat, J.-C., Michet, A., Linhart, Y.B. and Ehlers, B. 2003. Qualitative and quantitative variation in monoterpene co-occurrence and composition in the essential oil of Thymus vulgaris Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29(4): 859-880.
    44.
  44. Thompson, J.D., Tarayre, M., Gauthier, P., Litrico, I. and Linhart, Y.B. 2004. Multiple genetic contributions to plant performance in Thymus vulgaris. Journal of Ecology, 92(1): 45-56.
    45.
  45. Turtola, S., Manninen, A.-M., Rikala, R. and Kainulainen, P. 2003. Drought stress alters the concentration of wood terpenoids in Scots pine and Norway spruce seedlings. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 29(9): 1981-1995.
    46.
  46. Uzilday, B., Turkan, I., Sekmen, A., Ozgur, R. and Karakaya, H. 2012. Comparison of ROS formation and antioxidant enzymes in Cleome gynandra (C4) and Cleome spinosa (C3) under drought stress. Plant Science, 18:259-70.
    47.
  47. Vaičiulytė, V. and Ložienė, K. 2015. Metabolomic analysis and effects of meteorological factors on phenolic and non-phenolic chemotypes of Thymus pulegioides cultured in the same locality. Industrial Crops and Products, 77:491-498.
    48.
  48. Yazdani, D., Shahnazi, S., Jamshidi, A., Rezazadeh, S. and mojab, F. 2006. Assessment of essential oils of qualitative and quantitative changes of thyme and tarragon in the fresh and dry parts of the plant. Medicinal Plant Journal, 17(4): 7-15.
    49.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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