The role of green managment in reducing plastic use a systematic review
Subject Areas : Chemistry and Chemical Engineering of all specializationsNazanin Khakipour 1 * , Shiva Dehghan Abkenar 2
1 -
2 - Department of Chemistry, Savadkooh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Savadkooh, Iran
Keywords: Plastics, Microplastics, Abiotic degradation, Biodegradation, Accumulation.,
Abstract :
Background and Objectives: Accumulation of plastic waste is known as one of the most important environmental challenges. It is estimated that until 2015, approximately 6300 million tons of plastic waste was produced, 79% of which was accumulated in landfills or the natural environment. Oceans are considered the most critical areas in terms of plastic accumulation pollution, because they can transport plastics to distant areas. Research method: Finding alternative solutions compatible with the environment, such as biodegradation instead of traditional disposal, is of great importance. Findings: Abiotic degradation of plastic occurs naturally like mechanical degradation caused by the forces of tides, waves and wear by rocks. Naturally, oxidation due to light, hydrolysis process and mechanical destruction can easily lead to the formation of micro and nano plastic parts. Plastic hydrolysis is one of the main steps in non-biological degradation. In biodegradation, soil bacteria are efficient in biological cleaning of pollutants because they face changing environmental conditions such as temperature, humidity, pH, etc. Conclusion: Investigating the erosion behavior of polymers, mixtures, composites, etc. in different environmental conditions is a priority issue for evaluating possible applications and determining their lifespan.
References:
1-Jenkins, S., Quer, A.M.I., Fonseca, C., Varrone, C., 2020, Microbial degradation of plastics: new plastic degraders, mixed cultures and engineering strategies. In: Jamil, N. Kumar, P. Batool, R. editors. Soil microenvironment for bioremediation and polymer production. Scrivener Publishing LLC. 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119592129.ch12. 2-Amobonye, A., Bhagwat, P., Singh, S., Pillai, S., 2021, Plastic biodegradation: frontline microbes and their enzymes. Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143536. 3-Rivard, C., Moens, L., Roberts, K., Brigham, J., Kelley, S., 1995, Starch esters as biodegradable plastics: effects of ester group chain length and degree of substitution on anaerobic biodegradation. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 17,848–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0229(94)00120-G. 4-Gewert, B., Plassmann, M.M., MacLeod, M., 2015, Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. Environmental Science, Processes & Impacts. 17, 1513. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00207A 5-Danso, D., Chow, J., Streit, W.R., 2019, Plastics: environmental and biotechnological perspectives on microbial degradation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology Journal, 85(19), e01095-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01095-19. 6-Krueger, M.C., Harms, H., Schlosser, D., 2015, Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99, 8857–8874.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6879-4. 7-Barra, R., Leonard, S. A., 2018, Plastics and the circular economy. 54th Global Environment Facility Council Meeting, Da Nang, Vietnam. June 24–26. 8-Royer, S.J., Ferrón, S., Wilson, S.T., Karl, D.M., 2018, Production of methane and ethylene from plastic in the environment. PLoS One, 13(8): e0200574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200574. 9-Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017, Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, 3(7): e1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782. 10-Lebreton, L., Andrady, A., 2019, Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal. Palgrave Commun. 5-6. 11-Yoshida, S., Hiraga, K., Takehana, T., Taniguchi, I., Yamaji, H., Maeda, Y., et al., 2016, K. A. bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly ethylene terephthalate. Science, 351,1196–1199. 12-Lambert, S., Wagner, M., 2018, Microplastics Are Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Freshwater Environments: An Overview; Springer. Science and Business Media LLC: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1–23. 13-Albertsson, A., Bødtker, G., Boldizar, A., Filatova, T., Prieto, J.M., Loos, K., et al. 2020, Biodegradability of plastics in the open environment. In: Evidence Review Report 8. Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA), Brussels. https://doi.org/10.26356/biodegradabilityplastics. 14-Moore, C., Phillips, C., 2012, Plastic Ocean: How a Sea Captain’s Chance Discovery Launched a Determined Quest to Save the Oceans, ISBN 1583334246. Avery. 15-Westphalen, H., Abdelrasoul, A., 2018, Challenges and treatment of microplastics in water, water challenges of an urbanizing world. In: Glavan, M, editor. Water Challenge of an Urbanizing World. IntechOpen, 72–83. 16-Moore, C.J., 2008, Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environmental Research, 108, 131–139. 17-Isobe, A., Iwasaki, S., Uchida, K., Tokai, T, 2019, Abundance of non-conservative microplastics in the upper ocean from 1957 to 2066. Nature Communications, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08316-9. 18-Selvam, S. Manisha, A. Roy, P.D. Venkatramanan, S. Chung, S.Y. Muthukumar, P. et al. (2019). Microplastics and trace metals in fish species of the Gulf of Mannar (Indian Ocean) and evaluation of human health. Environmental Pollution, 291, 118089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envpol.2021.118089. 19-Selvam, S., Jesuraja, K., Venkatramanan, S., Roy, P.D., Kumari, V.J., 2021b, Hazardous microplastic characteristics and its role as a vector of heavy metal in groundwater and surface water of coastal south India. The Journal of Hazardous Materials, 402. 123786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123786. 20-Banwart, S., 2011, Save our soils. Nature, 474-151. https://doi.org/10.1038/474151a. 21-Abhilash, P.C., Powell, J.R., Singh, H.B., Singh, B.K., 2012, Plant-microbe interactions: novel applications for exploitation in multipurpose remediation technologies. Trends in Biotechnology, 30, 416–420. 22-Nizzetto, L., Futter, M., Langaas, S., 2016, Are agricultural soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin? Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 10777–10779. 23-Gaylor, M.O., Harvey, E., Hale, R.C., 2013, Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) accumulation by earthworms (Eisenia foetida) exposed to biosolids-, polyurethane foam microparticle-, and Penta-BDE-amended soils. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 13831–13839. 24-Chae, Y., An, Y.J., 2018, Current research trends on plastic pollution and ecological impacts on the soil ecosystem: a review. Environmental Pollution, 240, 387–395. 25-Gijsman, P., Meijers, G., Vitarelli, G. (1999). Comparison of the UV-degradation chemistry of polypropylene, polyethylene, polyamide 6 and polybutylene terephthalate. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 65, 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(99)00033-6. 26-Yousif, E., Haddad, R., 2013, Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially polystyrene: review. SpringerPlus, 2, 398. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-398. 27-Scott, G., 2002, Degradable Polymers Principles and Applications. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht. 28-Singh, B., Sharma, N., 2008, Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 93, 561–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.11.008. 29-Tolinski, M., 2009, Additives for Polyolefins Getting the Most out of Polypropylene, Polyethylene and TPO. William Andrew Pub., Oxford. 30-Peacock, A.J., 2000, Handbook of Polyethylene: Structures, Properties and Applications. Marcel Dekker, New York. 31-Albertsson, A.C., Karlsson, S., 1988, The three stages in degradation of polymers—polyethylene as a model substance. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 35(5), 1289–1302. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1988.070350515. 32-Baes, C., Mesmer, R., 1976, The Hydrolysis of Cations. Wiley, New York. 33-Crawford, D.M., Teets, A.R., 1988, Flanagan D. Differential scanning calorimetry as a method for indicating hydrolysis of urethane elastomers. Technical Report. US Army, Belvoir Research, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 2463. 34-Padsalgikar, A.D., 2017, Biological properties of plastics. Plastics in Medical Devices for Cardiovascular Applications, 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-35885-9.00004-7. 35-Hosseini, S.S., Taheri, S., Zadhoush, A., Mehrabani-Zeinabad, A., (2007). Hydrolytic degradation of poly ethylene terephthalate. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 103(4), 2304–2309. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-3057(91)90237-I. 36-Booth, A.M., Kubowicz, S., Beegle-Krause, C., Skancke, J., Nordam, T., Landsem, E., et al. 2017, Microplastic in Global and Norwegian Marine Environ-ments: Distributions, Degradation Mechanisms and Transport. Norwegian Environment Agency, M-918. Available at https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/globalassets/publikasjoner/M918/M918.pdf). 37-Lopalco, A., Douglas, J., Denora, N., Stella, V.J., 2016, Determination of pKa and hydration constants for a series of α-keto-carboxylic acids using nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 105(2), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.24539. 38-Kitamoto, H.K., Shinozaki, Y., Cao, X., Morita, T., Konishi, M., Tago, K., et al. 2011, Phyllosphere yeasts rapidly break down biodegradable plastics. AMB Express, 1(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-0855-1-44. 39- Booth, A.M., Hansen, B.H., Frenzel, M., Johnsen, H., Altin D., 2016, Uptake and Toxicity of Methylmethacrylate-Based Nanoplastic Particles in Aquatic Organisms. In Fate and Impact of Microplastics in Marine Ecosystems, Elsevier. 70-71. 40-Van Krevelen, D.W., Te Nijenhuis, K., 2009, Chemical degradation. Properties of Polymers, Elsevier B.V. 779–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-054819-7.00022-4. 41-Ali, S.S., Sun, J., 2019, Effective thermal pretreatment of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for the enhancement of biomethanation: VIT® gene probe technology for microbial community analysis with special reference to methanogenic Archaea. The Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 7, 102853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.102853. 42-Ali, S.S., Al-Tohamy, R., Manni, A., Luz, F.C., Elsamahy, T., Sun, J., 2019a, Enhanced digestion of bio-pretreated sawdust using a novel bacterial consortium: microbial community structure and methane-producing pathways. Fuel, 254, 115604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.06.012. 43-Ali, S.S., Nessem, A.A., Sun, J., Li, X. 2019b, The effects of water hyacinth pretreated digestate on Lupinus termis L. seedlings under sali stress: a complementary study. The Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7, 103159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103159. 44-Shah, A.A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., Ahmed, S., 2008, Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. Biotechnology Advances, 26 (3), 246–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotechadv.2007.12.005. 45-Magnin, A., Pollet, E., Phalip, V., Avérous, L., 2020, Evaluation of biological degradation of polyurethanes. Biotechnology Advances, 39, 107457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.107457. 46-Biffinger, J.C., Barlow, D.E., Pirlo, R.K., Babson, D.M., Fitzgerald, L.A., Zingarelli, S., et al. 2014, A direct quantitative agar-plate based assay for analysis of Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 degradation of polyurethane films. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 95, 311–319. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ibiod.2014.09.005. 47-Ali, S.S., Sun, J., 2015, Physico-chemical pretreatment and fungal biotreatment for park wastes and cattle dung for biogas production. SpringerPlus, 4, 712. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1466-9. 48-Venkatesh, S., Mahboob, S., Govindarajan, M., Al-Ghanim, K.A., Ahmed, Z., Al-Mulhm, N., 2021, Microbial degradation of plastics: sustainable approach to tackling environmental threats facing big cities of the future. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 33, 101362. 49-Thakur, S., Chaudhary, J., Sharma, B., Verma, A., Tamulevicius, S., Thakur, V.K., 2018, Sustainability of bioplastics: opportunities and challenges. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Reuse and Recycling / UN SGDs: How can Sustainable Chemistry Contribute? / Green Chemistry in Education. 13. 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cogsc.2018.04.013. 50-Rutkowska, M., Heimowska, A., Krasowska, K., Janik, H., 2002, Biodegradability of polyethylene starch blends in sea water. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 11, 267–272. 51-Malla, M.A., Dubey, A., Yada, S., Kumar, A., Hashem, A., Abd_Allah, EF. (2018). Understanding and designing the strategies for the microbe-mediated remediation of environmental contaminants using omics approaches. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 1132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01132. 52-Vigneswari, S., Lee, T.S., Bhubalan, K., Amirul, A.A., 2015, Extracellular Polyhydroxyalkanoate Depolymerase by Acidovorax sp. DP5. Enzyme Research, 212159. doi: 10.1155/2015/212159. Epub 2015 Nov 17. PMID: 26664741; PMCID: PMC4664802. 53-Uchida, N., Buck, D.W., He, D., Reitsma, M.J., Masek, M., Phan, T.V., Tsukamoto, A.S., Gage, F.H., Weissman, I.L., 2000, Direct isolation of human central nervous system stem cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA. 19,97(26):14720-5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.97.26.14720. PMID: 11121071; PMCID: PMC18985.
54-Shosuke, Y., Kazumi, H., Ikuo, T., Kohei, O., 2021, Chapter Nine - Ideonella sakaiensis, PETase, and MHETase: From identification of microbial PET degradation to enzyme characterization, Editor(s): Gert Weber, Uwe T. Bornscheuer, Ren Wei, Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, 648, 187-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mie.2020.12.007. 55-Tanasupawat, S., Takehana, T., Yoshida, S., Hiraga, K., Oda, K., 2016, Ideonella sakaiensis sp. nov. isolated from a microbial consortium that degrades poly ethylene terephthalate. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 66, 2813–2818. 56-Friedrich, J., Zalar, P., Mohorˇciˇc, M., Klun, U., Krˇzan, A., 2007, Ability of fungi to degrade synthetic polymer nylon-6. Chemosphere, 67, 2089–2095. 57-Krueger, M.C., Hofmann, U., Moeder, M., Schlosser, D., 2015b, Potential of wood-rotting fungi to attack polystyrene sulfonate and its depolymerisation by Gloeophyllum trabeum via hydroquinone-driven Fenton chemistry, PLoS One, 10. e0131773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131773. 58-Perin, G., Bellan, A., Bernardi, A., Bezzo, F., Morosinotto, T., 2016, The potential of quantitative models to improve microalgae photosynthetic efficiency. Physiologia Plantarum, 166, 380–391. 59-Bulgariu, L., Bulgariu, D., 2020, Bioremediation of toxic heavy metals using marine algae biomass. In: Naushad, M., Lichtfouse, E. editors. Green Materials for Wastewater Treatment. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 69–98. 60-Devi, K.U., Swapna, G., Suneetha, S., 2014, Microalgae in bioremediation: sequestration of greenhouse gases, clearout of fugitive nutrient minerals, and subtraction of toxic elements from waters. In: Das, S. editor. Microbial Biodegradation and Bioremediation, Elsevier, Oxford. 433–454. 61-Kumar, R.V., Kanna, G.R., Elumalai, S., 2016, Biodegradation of polyethylene by green photosynthetic microalgae. Journal of Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 8,1000381. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000381. 62- Eich, A., Mildenberger, T., Laforsch, C., Weber, M., 2015, Biofilm and Diatom Succession on Polyethylene (PE) and Biodegradable Plastic Bags in Two Marine Habitats: Early Signs of Degradation in the Pelagic and Benthic Zone? PLOS ONE, 10(9), e0137201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137201. 63-Moog, D., Schmitt, J., Senger, J., Zarzycki, J., Rexer, K.H., Linne, U., et al. 2018, Using a marine microalga as a chassis for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) degradation. Microbial Cell Factories. 18(1), 171. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-019-1220-z. 64-Kim, J.W., Park, S.B., Tran, Q.G., Cho, D.H., Choi, D.Y., Lee, Y.J., Kim, H.S., 2020, Functional expression of polyethylene terephthalate-degrading enzyme (PETase) in green microalgae. Microbial Cell Factories, 19, 97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-020-01355-8. 65-Ganesh, P.S., Vishnupriya, S., Vadivelu, J., Mariappan, V., Vellasamy, K.M., Shankar, E.M., 2020, Intracellular survival and innate immune evasion of Burkholderia cepacia: Improved understanding of quorum sensing‐controlled virulence factors, biofilm, and inhibitors. Microbiology and immunology. 64(2), 87-98. 66-Gosh, K., Chowdhury, S., 2019, Review of aquaponics system: searching for a technically feasible and economically profitable aquaponics system. Journal of Agricultural, Environmental and Consumer Sciences, 19, 5-13. 67-Jacquin, J., Cheng, J., Odobel, C., Pandin, C., Conan, P., Pujo-Pay, M., et al. 2019, Microbial ecotoxicology of marine plastic debris: a review on colonization and biodegradation by the “plastisphere”. Frontiers in Microbiology, 25(10), 865. 68-Pinto, M., Langer, T.M., Hüffer, T., Hofmann, T., Herndl, G.J., 2019, The composition of bacterial communities associated with plastic biofilms differs between different polymers and stages of biofilm succession. PloS one, 5, 14(6): e0217165.
1-Jenkins, S., Quer, A.M.I., Fonseca, C., Varrone, C., 2020, Microbial degradation of plastics: new plastic degraders, mixed cultures and engineering strategies. In: Jamil, N. Kumar, P. Batool, R. editors. Soil microenvironment for bioremediation and polymer production. Scrivener Publishing LLC. 213–238. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119592129.ch12. 2-Amobonye, A., Bhagwat, P., Singh, S., Pillai, S., 2021, Plastic biodegradation: frontline microbes and their enzymes. Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143536. 3-Rivard, C., Moens, L., Roberts, K., Brigham, J., Kelley, S., 1995, Starch esters as biodegradable plastics: effects of ester group chain length and degree of substitution on anaerobic biodegradation. Enzyme and Microbial Technology. 17,848–852. https://doi.org/10.1016/0141-0229(94)00120-G. 4-Gewert, B., Plassmann, M.M., MacLeod, M., 2015, Pathways for degradation of plastic polymers floating in the marine environment. Environmental Science, Processes & Impacts. 17, 1513. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5EM00207A 5-Danso, D., Chow, J., Streit, W.R., 2019, Plastics: environmental and biotechnological perspectives on microbial degradation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology Journal, 85(19), e01095-19. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.01095-19. 6-Krueger, M.C., Harms, H., Schlosser, D., 2015, Prospects for microbiological solutions to environmental pollution with plastics. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99, 8857–8874.https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-015-6879-4. 7-Barra, R., Leonard, S. A., 2018, Plastics and the circular economy. 54th Global Environment Facility Council Meeting, Da Nang, Vietnam. June 24–26. 8-Royer, S.J., Ferrón, S., Wilson, S.T., Karl, D.M., 2018, Production of methane and ethylene from plastic in the environment. PLoS One, 13(8): e0200574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200574. 9-Geyer, R., Jambeck, J.R., Law, K.L., 2017, Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made. Science Advances, 3(7): e1700782. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1700782. 10-Lebreton, L., Andrady, A., 2019, Future scenarios of global plastic waste generation and disposal. Palgrave Commun. 5-6. 11-Yoshida, S., Hiraga, K., Takehana, T., Taniguchi, I., Yamaji, H., Maeda, Y., et al., 2016, K. A. bacterium that degrades and assimilates poly ethylene terephthalate. Science, 351,1196–1199. 12-Lambert, S., Wagner, M., 2018, Microplastics Are Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Freshwater Environments: An Overview; Springer. Science and Business Media LLC: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1–23. 13-Albertsson, A., Bødtker, G., Boldizar, A., Filatova, T., Prieto, J.M., Loos, K., et al. 2020, Biodegradability of plastics in the open environment. In: Evidence Review Report 8. Science Advice for Policy by European Academies (SAPEA), Brussels. https://doi.org/10.26356/biodegradabilityplastics. 14-Moore, C., Phillips, C., 2012, Plastic Ocean: How a Sea Captain’s Chance Discovery Launched a Determined Quest to Save the Oceans, ISBN 1583334246. Avery. 15-Westphalen, H., Abdelrasoul, A., 2018, Challenges and treatment of microplastics in water, water challenges of an urbanizing world. In: Glavan, M, editor. Water Challenge of an Urbanizing World. IntechOpen, 72–83. 16-Moore, C.J., 2008, Synthetic polymers in the marine environment: a rapidly increasing, long-term threat. Environmental Research, 108, 131–139. 17-Isobe, A., Iwasaki, S., Uchida, K., Tokai, T, 2019, Abundance of non-conservative microplastics in the upper ocean from 1957 to 2066. Nature Communications, 10, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-08316-9. 18-Selvam, S. Manisha, A. Roy, P.D. Venkatramanan, S. Chung, S.Y. Muthukumar, P. et al. (2019). Microplastics and trace metals in fish species of the Gulf of Mannar (Indian Ocean) and evaluation of human health. Environmental Pollution, 291, 118089. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envpol.2021.118089. 19-Selvam, S., Jesuraja, K., Venkatramanan, S., Roy, P.D., Kumari, V.J., 2021b, Hazardous microplastic characteristics and its role as a vector of heavy metal in groundwater and surface water of coastal south India. The Journal of Hazardous Materials, 402. 123786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123786. 20-Banwart, S., 2011, Save our soils. Nature, 474-151. https://doi.org/10.1038/474151a. 21-Abhilash, P.C., Powell, J.R., Singh, H.B., Singh, B.K., 2012, Plant-microbe interactions: novel applications for exploitation in multipurpose remediation technologies. Trends in Biotechnology, 30, 416–420. 22-Nizzetto, L., Futter, M., Langaas, S., 2016, Are agricultural soils dumps for microplastics of urban origin? Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 10777–10779. 23-Gaylor, M.O., Harvey, E., Hale, R.C., 2013, Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) accumulation by earthworms (Eisenia foetida) exposed to biosolids-, polyurethane foam microparticle-, and Penta-BDE-amended soils. Environmental Science & Technology, 47, 13831–13839. 24-Chae, Y., An, Y.J., 2018, Current research trends on plastic pollution and ecological impacts on the soil ecosystem: a review. Environmental Pollution, 240, 387–395. 25-Gijsman, P., Meijers, G., Vitarelli, G. (1999). Comparison of the UV-degradation chemistry of polypropylene, polyethylene, polyamide 6 and polybutylene terephthalate. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 65, 433–441. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-3910(99)00033-6. 26-Yousif, E., Haddad, R., 2013, Photodegradation and photostabilization of polymers, especially polystyrene: review. SpringerPlus, 2, 398. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-1801-2-398. 27-Scott, G., 2002, Degradable Polymers Principles and Applications. Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht. 28-Singh, B., Sharma, N., 2008, Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation. Polymer Degradation and Stability, 93, 561–584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.11.008. 29-Tolinski, M., 2009, Additives for Polyolefins Getting the Most out of Polypropylene, Polyethylene and TPO. William Andrew Pub., Oxford. 30-Peacock, A.J., 2000, Handbook of Polyethylene: Structures, Properties and Applications. Marcel Dekker, New York. 31-Albertsson, A.C., Karlsson, S., 1988, The three stages in degradation of polymers—polyethylene as a model substance. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 35(5), 1289–1302. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1988.070350515. 32-Baes, C., Mesmer, R., 1976, The Hydrolysis of Cations. Wiley, New York. 33-Crawford, D.M., Teets, A.R., 1988, Flanagan D. Differential scanning calorimetry as a method for indicating hydrolysis of urethane elastomers. Technical Report. US Army, Belvoir Research, Fort Belvoir, Virginia 2463. 34-Padsalgikar, A.D., 2017, Biological properties of plastics. Plastics in Medical Devices for Cardiovascular Applications, 83–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-35885-9.00004-7. 35-Hosseini, S.S., Taheri, S., Zadhoush, A., Mehrabani-Zeinabad, A., (2007). Hydrolytic degradation of poly ethylene terephthalate. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 103(4), 2304–2309. https://doi.org/10.1016/0014-3057(91)90237-I. 36-Booth, A.M., Kubowicz, S., Beegle-Krause, C., Skancke, J., Nordam, T., Landsem, E., et al. 2017, Microplastic in Global and Norwegian Marine Environ-ments: Distributions, Degradation Mechanisms and Transport. Norwegian Environment Agency, M-918. Available at https://www.miljodirektoratet.no/globalassets/publikasjoner/M918/M918.pdf). 37-Lopalco, A., Douglas, J., Denora, N., Stella, V.J., 2016, Determination of pKa and hydration constants for a series of α-keto-carboxylic acids using nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 105(2), 664–672. https://doi.org/10.1002/jps.24539. 38-Kitamoto, H.K., Shinozaki, Y., Cao, X., Morita, T., Konishi, M., Tago, K., et al. 2011, Phyllosphere yeasts rapidly break down biodegradable plastics. AMB Express, 1(1), 44. https://doi.org/10.1186/2191-0855-1-44. 39- Booth, A.M., Hansen, B.H., Frenzel, M., Johnsen, H., Altin D., 2016, Uptake and Toxicity of Methylmethacrylate-Based Nanoplastic Particles in Aquatic Organisms. In Fate and Impact of Microplastics in Marine Ecosystems, Elsevier. 70-71. 40-Van Krevelen, D.W., Te Nijenhuis, K., 2009, Chemical degradation. Properties of Polymers, Elsevier B.V. 779–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-08-054819-7.00022-4. 41-Ali, S.S., Sun, J., 2019, Effective thermal pretreatment of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for the enhancement of biomethanation: VIT® gene probe technology for microbial community analysis with special reference to methanogenic Archaea. The Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 7, 102853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.102853. 42-Ali, S.S., Al-Tohamy, R., Manni, A., Luz, F.C., Elsamahy, T., Sun, J., 2019a, Enhanced digestion of bio-pretreated sawdust using a novel bacterial consortium: microbial community structure and methane-producing pathways. Fuel, 254, 115604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.06.012. 43-Ali, S.S., Nessem, A.A., Sun, J., Li, X. 2019b, The effects of water hyacinth pretreated digestate on Lupinus termis L. seedlings under sali stress: a complementary study. The Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 7, 103159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.103159. 44-Shah, A.A., Hasan, F., Hameed, A., Ahmed, S., 2008, Biological degradation of plastics: a comprehensive review. Biotechnology Advances, 26 (3), 246–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. biotechadv.2007.12.005. 45-Magnin, A., Pollet, E., Phalip, V., Avérous, L., 2020, Evaluation of biological degradation of polyurethanes. Biotechnology Advances, 39, 107457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2019.107457. 46-Biffinger, J.C., Barlow, D.E., Pirlo, R.K., Babson, D.M., Fitzgerald, L.A., Zingarelli, S., et al. 2014, A direct quantitative agar-plate based assay for analysis of Pseudomonas protegens Pf-5 degradation of polyurethane films. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 95, 311–319. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.ibiod.2014.09.005. 47-Ali, S.S., Sun, J., 2015, Physico-chemical pretreatment and fungal biotreatment for park wastes and cattle dung for biogas production. SpringerPlus, 4, 712. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-015-1466-9. 48-Venkatesh, S., Mahboob, S., Govindarajan, M., Al-Ghanim, K.A., Ahmed, Z., Al-Mulhm, N., 2021, Microbial degradation of plastics: sustainable approach to tackling environmental threats facing big cities of the future. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 33, 101362. 49-Thakur, S., Chaudhary, J., Sharma, B., Verma, A., Tamulevicius, S., Thakur, V.K., 2018, Sustainability of bioplastics: opportunities and challenges. Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Reuse and Recycling / UN SGDs: How can Sustainable Chemistry Contribute? / Green Chemistry in Education. 13. 68–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. cogsc.2018.04.013. 50-Rutkowska, M., Heimowska, A., Krasowska, K., Janik, H., 2002, Biodegradability of polyethylene starch blends in sea water. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 11, 267–272. 51-Malla, M.A., Dubey, A., Yada, S., Kumar, A., Hashem, A., Abd_Allah, EF. (2018). Understanding and designing the strategies for the microbe-mediated remediation of environmental contaminants using omics approaches. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 1132. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01132. 52-Vigneswari, S., Lee, T.S., Bhubalan, K., Amirul, A.A., 2015, Extracellular Polyhydroxyalkanoate Depolymerase by Acidovorax sp. DP5. Enzyme Research, 212159. doi: 10.1155/2015/212159. Epub 2015 Nov 17. PMID: 26664741; PMCID: PMC4664802. 53-Uchida, N., Buck, D.W., He, D., Reitsma, M.J., Masek, M., Phan, T.V., Tsukamoto, A.S., Gage, F.H., Weissman, I.L., 2000, Direct isolation of human central nervous system stem cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of USA. 19,97(26):14720-5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.97.26.14720. PMID: 11121071; PMCID: PMC18985.
54-Shosuke, Y., Kazumi, H., Ikuo, T., Kohei, O., 2021, Chapter Nine - Ideonella sakaiensis, PETase, and MHETase: From identification of microbial PET degradation to enzyme characterization, Editor(s): Gert Weber, Uwe T. Bornscheuer, Ren Wei, Methods in Enzymology, Academic Press, 648, 187-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.mie.2020.12.007. 55-Tanasupawat, S., Takehana, T., Yoshida, S., Hiraga, K., Oda, K., 2016, Ideonella sakaiensis sp. nov. isolated from a microbial consortium that degrades poly ethylene terephthalate. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 66, 2813–2818. 56-Friedrich, J., Zalar, P., Mohorˇciˇc, M., Klun, U., Krˇzan, A., 2007, Ability of fungi to degrade synthetic polymer nylon-6. Chemosphere, 67, 2089–2095. 57-Krueger, M.C., Hofmann, U., Moeder, M., Schlosser, D., 2015b, Potential of wood-rotting fungi to attack polystyrene sulfonate and its depolymerisation by Gloeophyllum trabeum via hydroquinone-driven Fenton chemistry, PLoS One, 10. e0131773. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0131773. 58-Perin, G., Bellan, A., Bernardi, A., Bezzo, F., Morosinotto, T., 2016, The potential of quantitative models to improve microalgae photosynthetic efficiency. Physiologia Plantarum, 166, 380–391. 59-Bulgariu, L., Bulgariu, D., 2020, Bioremediation of toxic heavy metals using marine algae biomass. In: Naushad, M., Lichtfouse, E. editors. Green Materials for Wastewater Treatment. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, 69–98. 60-Devi, K.U., Swapna, G., Suneetha, S., 2014, Microalgae in bioremediation: sequestration of greenhouse gases, clearout of fugitive nutrient minerals, and subtraction of toxic elements from waters. In: Das, S. editor. Microbial Biodegradation and Bioremediation, Elsevier, Oxford. 433–454. 61-Kumar, R.V., Kanna, G.R., Elumalai, S., 2016, Biodegradation of polyethylene by green photosynthetic microalgae. Journal of Bioremediation & Biodegradation, 8,1000381. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6199.1000381. 62- Eich, A., Mildenberger, T., Laforsch, C., Weber, M., 2015, Biofilm and Diatom Succession on Polyethylene (PE) and Biodegradable Plastic Bags in Two Marine Habitats: Early Signs of Degradation in the Pelagic and Benthic Zone? PLOS ONE, 10(9), e0137201. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0137201. 63-Moog, D., Schmitt, J., Senger, J., Zarzycki, J., Rexer, K.H., Linne, U., et al. 2018, Using a marine microalga as a chassis for polyethylene terephthalate (PET) degradation. Microbial Cell Factories. 18(1), 171. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-019-1220-z. 64-Kim, J.W., Park, S.B., Tran, Q.G., Cho, D.H., Choi, D.Y., Lee, Y.J., Kim, H.S., 2020, Functional expression of polyethylene terephthalate-degrading enzyme (PETase) in green microalgae. Microbial Cell Factories, 19, 97. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12934-020-01355-8. 65-Ganesh, P.S., Vishnupriya, S., Vadivelu, J., Mariappan, V., Vellasamy, K.M., Shankar, E.M., 2020, Intracellular survival and innate immune evasion of Burkholderia cepacia: Improved understanding of quorum sensing‐controlled virulence factors, biofilm, and inhibitors. Microbiology and immunology. 64(2), 87-98. 66-Gosh, K., Chowdhury, S., 2019, Review of aquaponics system: searching for a technically feasible and economically profitable aquaponics system. Journal of Agricultural, Environmental and Consumer Sciences, 19, 5-13. 67-Jacquin, J., Cheng, J., Odobel, C., Pandin, C., Conan, P., Pujo-Pay, M., et al. 2019, Microbial ecotoxicology of marine plastic debris: a review on colonization and biodegradation by the “plastisphere”. Frontiers in Microbiology, 25(10), 865. 68-Pinto, M., Langer, T.M., Hüffer, T., Hofmann, T., Herndl, G.J., 2019, The composition of bacterial communities associated with plastic biofilms differs between different polymers and stages of biofilm succession. PloS one, 5, 14(6): e0217165.