Environmental Terrorism Criminalization; Challenges, Norms and Strategies

Subject Areas : environmental management

Sayeed Abbas Puorhashemi ¹ ( Associate Prof. Environmental Law, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research University, Islamic Azad Uni. Tehran. Member of international Law center, Faculty of Law and Political Sciences, Yoakum University, Canada )
Payman Namamian ² ( PhD St, Criminalization and Penal Laws, Researcher of International Penal Laws, Khwarizmi University )
Sobhan Tayebi ³ ( PhD St, Faculty of Environment and Energy, Science and Research University, Islamic Azad Uni. Tehran )

Received: 2014-07-06 Accepted : 2015-03-05 Published : 2015-03-21

Keywords: criminalization, Environmental Terrorism, Modern Terrorism, Chemical –Nuclear and Radiolog, Environmental protection,

Abstract :

Background and Objectives: Todays abuse of the Environment and the living World, both as atTarget and as a tool for Terrorist Activity is Evident. In this context, "green war" with the changingface of terrorism as a phenomenon, emerging in the contemporary world appears. Not only theinternational laws, but domestic laws (National) did not counter this threat practically. It providesemerging threats. However, the applicability of legal principles, strategies could also replace the antiterrorismactions effectively and provide appropriate solutions for this crisis. Green or environmentalterrorism, including terrorism with new environmental elements, conveniently located on the route ofterrorist activity.Methods: The Presented cross-sectional study based on the principles, methods, libraries research andthe forwarded ways based on the cross-sectional and Library Noting including old and new aspects ofthis new phenomenon of terrorism is discussed. In this regard, the proposed environmental terrorismas a global risk coping strategies are also reviewed and considered with the best route is diplomacy.Results: In addition to describing the implementation of these strategies in this regard, this study hasattempted to offer effective strategic approaches to tackle the new criminal law as "green terrorism" or"the ecosystem drawing" with the best tackle of the mechanisms which provides emerging threats.

References:

1. مجیدی، سیدمحمود، 1386،«جرم‌انگاری تهاجمی فرانسه در جرائم تروریستی»، نامه مفید، شماره64، صص 180-178.


2. Arthur H. Westing, 1985, Environmental Warfare, 15 ENVTL. L. 645, 646.


3. Andreas Hasenclever and Volker Rittberger, Does Religion Make a Difference? Theoretical approaches to the impact of ۲۹, No.۳, ۲۰۰۰, pp. ۶۴۳-۶۴۶ Journal of International Studies, Vol.  Faith on Political Contict, Millennium


4. Stephan H. Leader,1997, The Rise of Terrorism, SEC. MGMT., Apr. 1, available in 1997 WL 9533016


5. Robert Kupperman,1997, A Dangerous Future, in TERRORISM IN THE UNITED STATES 91, 95


6. BRENT SMITH, TERRORISM IN AMERICA ,1996, Major Bernard K. Schafer, The Relationship Between the International Law of Armed Conflict and Environmental Protection: The Need to Evaluate What Types of Conduct are Permissible During Hostilities, 19 CAL. W. INT'LL.J. 287, 288-89


7. Susan Hedman, 1991, Expressive Function of Criminal Sanctions in Environmental Law, 59GEO. WASH. L. REV. 889, 896


8. Mark Allan Gray, 1996, The International Crime of Ecocide, 26 CAL. W. INTL L.J. 215, 258-59.


9. Michael N. Schmitt, 1997, Green War: An Assessment of the Environmental Law of International Armed Conflict, 22 YALE J. INTL L. 1, 7-8.


10. Michael D. Diederich, Jr., 1992, Law of War and Ecology-A Proposal for a Workable Approach to Protecting the Environment Through the Law of War, 136 MIL. L. REV. 137, 149-52.


11. Roberta Smith, 1997, America Tries to Come to Thrms with Terrorism: The United States Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 v. The British Anti-Terrorism Law and International Response, 5 CARDOZO J. INT'L & Compo L. 249, 249-50.


12. BENJAMIN NETANYAHU, 1995, FIGHTING Terrorism 129.


13. Bruce W. N elan, 1994, Formula fur Terror: The Former Soviet Arsenal 18 Leaking into the West, Igniting Fears of a New Brand of Nuclear Horror, TIME, Aug. 29, at 46.


14. GRAHAM T. ALLISON ET AL., 1996, AVOIDING NUCLEAR Anarchy 1-2.


15. KEVIN JACK RILEY & BRUCE HOFFMAN, 1995, DOMESTIC Terrorism 3.


16. Michael Stohl,1990, Demystifying the Mystery of International Terrorism, in INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM ,p 81, 82


17. John Hanchette & Dennis Camire, 1997, Deadly Germs Strike Fear into U.S. Terror Fighters SALT LAKE TRIB., Mar. p 30.


18. Steven Strasser & Tom Post, 1995, A Cloud of Terror-And Suspicion, NEWSWEEK, Apr. 3, P 36.


19. طیبی، سبحان و  باریک‌رو، بهنوش، 1392، «دموکراسی ستیزه‌جو ناقض صلح و امنیت بین‌المللی»، مجموعه مقالات کنگره شهدای ترور.


20. Brian Michael Jenkins,1997, Perspective on Terrorism, L.A. TIMES, Dec. 3, at B7


21. Gavin Cameron, 1996, Nuclear Terrorism: A Real Threat? JANE'S INTELLIGENCE REV., Sep.1, at 422


22. Thomas Halpern, 1997, Militia Movement: Prescription for Disaster, in TERRORISM IN THE UNITED States, p 51, 52.


23. Konrad Kellen, 1987, the Potential for Nuclear Terrorism: A Discussion, in PREVENTING NUCLEAR TERRORISM 104, 106.


24. نمامیان، پیمان و طیبی سبحان، 1393، «جرم‌انگاری تروریسم سایبری در حقوق بین الملل کیفری»، مجموعه مقالات دومین کنفرانس ملی دفاع سایبری،


25. Robert K. Mullen, Nuclear Violence, 1987,in PREVENTING NUCLEAR TERRORISM ,p231, 239-40


26. Gerald Pollack, 1987, Severe Accidents and Terrorist Threats at Nuclear Reactors, in PREVENTING NUCLEAR TERRORISM 66, 67.


27. WILLIAM THOMAS SCORCHED EARTH, 1995, THE MILITARY'S ASSAULT ON THE ENVIRONMENT.


28. Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Hearing Before the Senate Perm.1995, Subcomm. on Investigations, l04th Reg. Sess  testimony of Frank E. Young, M.D., Director, National Disaster Medical System


29. Ibm Knudson & Nancy Vogel, 1997,Aging Dams, Already Under Siege, Face New Pressures, THE SACRAMENTO BEE, Nov. 25


30. Adrianne Flynn,1997, Protecting Dams Drains Agency Fund, THE ARIZONA REPUBLIC, Mar. 28


31. Wire Reports, Grand Coulee Dam Security Beefed Up to Thwart Terrorists, 1997, THE FORT WORTH STAR TELEGRAM, May 24.


32. H. Josef Hebert, Dam Security Being Strengthened as Threat of 'Terrorism Becomes Issue, 1997, THE COLUMBIAN, Mar. p 28.


33. Spencer J. Crona & Neal A. Richardson, 1996, Justice for War Criminals of Invisible Armies: A New Legal and Military Approach to Terrorism, 21 OKLA. CITY U. L. REV. 349, 355


34. SUSAN F.1997, MANDIBERG & SUSAN L. SMITH, CRIMES AGAINST THE ENVIRONMENT,p 8


35. FRONA M. POWELL,1997, LAW AND THE ENVIRONMENT ,p 365


36. Richard J. Lazarus, 1994,Assimilating Environmental Protection Into Legal Rules and the Problem with Environmental Crime, 27 LOYOLA L.A. L. REV. 867, 868


37. Robert Deeb, 1993, Environmental Criminal Liability, 2 S.C. ENVTL. L.J. 159, 162


38. Steven L. 1990, Humphreys, An Enemy of the People: Prosecuting the Corporate Polluter as a Common Law Criminal, 39 AM. U. L. REV. 311, 326-27


39. Edward F. Novak & Charles W. Steese, 1997, Survey of Federal and State Environmental Crime Legislation, 34 ARIZ. L. REV. 571, 573


40. Gerhard O. W. Mueller, 1996, an Essay on Environmental Criminality in ENVIRONMENTAL CRIME AND CRIMINALITY 4 (Sally M. Edwards et al. eds.).


41. Susan Hedman, 1991, Expressive Function of Criminal Sanctions in Environmental Law, 59 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 889, 890


42. Lynn Berat, 1993,Defending the Right to a Healthy Environment: Toward a Crime of Genocide in International Law, 11 B.U. INTL L.J. 327, 330


43. Dick Thornburgh, 1991, Criminal Enforcement of Environmental Laws-A National Priority, 59 GEO. WASH. L. REV. 775, 778.


44. Hoffman, B. and A.B. Kasupski,2007, “The Victims of Terrorism: An Assessment of their Growing Role in Policy, Legislation, and the Private Sector”, RAND Center for Risk Management and Assessment Policy, Accessed June 10, 2008, from http://rand.org/pubs/occasional_papers /2007/RAND_OP180-1.sum.pdf,p 4-6


45. Curavic, Danica, 2010, “Compensating Victims of Terrorism or Frustrating Cultural Diplomacy? The Unintended Consequences of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act’s Terrorism Provisions”, Cornell International Law Journal, Vol. 43, p 405-407


46. معظمی، شهلا و نمامیان، پیمان، 1393، حقوق مبارزه با تروریسم هسته‌ای در اسناد بین‌المللی، تهران: مؤسسه انتشارات دادگستر، چاپ اول.