The effect of parallel aerobic and resistance exercise (PARE) with consumption of green tea on body composition, physical fitness and serum lipids of overweight and obese women
Subject Areas : Journal of Physical Activity and Hormones
Somaye Ghanbari
1
,
Anis Salimi Elizei
2
1 - MA. in Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran
2 - MA. in Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.
Keywords: Exercises, Lipid, Obese Women, Green Tea,
Abstract :
Introduction: This study aimed to determine the effect of aerobic and resistance exercise (PARE) with the consumption of green tea on body composition, physical fitness, and serum lipids of overweight and obese women in Ardabil City.
Material & Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, 45 Eligible volunteer women (age: 25-45 years; BMI>25 kg/m2 randomly divided into 3 equal groups (control group, CG; parallel aerobic and resistance exercise, PARE; and PARE with daily consumption of green tea (PARE+GT). The experimental groups performed three months of progressive PARE training, six sessions per week, Each session consisted of 15 minutes of warming up, and 35 minutes of aerobic exercise(65% of the maximum heart rate, HRmax; Saturday, Monday, Wednesday), or resistance exercise (60-65% one Repetition Maximum, 1RM; Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday). Before and after two months of training, body fat percentage (%BF), blood pressure (BP), Body weight (BW), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and blood lipid indices, aerobic and anaerobic power were measured. Statistical information was obtained by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was performed through SPSS software (version 24) and the significance level was considered as p<0.05.
Results: The results of data analysis showed that GT consumption does not have a significant effect on the variables. But in PARE and PARE+GT groups, the variables of %BF, aerobic capacity, aerobic, resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), resting diastolic blood pressure (DBP), blood triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) had a significant difference between the two stages before and after performing the test stages (p<0.05). However no difference was observed in body weight indices, body mass index, waist circumference to hip circumference ratio, heart rate Rest, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL).
Conclusion: PARE training probably improves fat percentage, aerobic capacity, aerobic, SBP, DBP, TG, and LDL in overweight and obese women. But green tea consumption does not have more effect.
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| Journal of Physical Activity and Hormones (J Physic Act Horm) Journal HomePage: https://sanad.iau.ir/journal/jpah/ |
|
The effect of parallel aerobic and resistance exercise (PARE) with consumption of green tea on body composition, physical fitness and serum lipids of overweight and obese women
Somaye Ghanbari1
, Anis Salimi Elizei2
1 MA. in Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.
2 MA. in Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical Education and Sports Science, Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Rasht, Iran.
Keywords Exercises, Lipid, Obese Women, Green Tea. |
| Abstract Introduction: This study aimed to determine the effect of aerobic and resistance exercise (PARE) with the consumption of green tea on body composition, physical fitness, and serum lipids of overweight and obese women in Ardabil City. Material & Methods: In this quasi-experimental study, 45 Eligible volunteer women (age: 25-45 years; BMI>25 kg/m2 randomly divided into 3 equal groups (control group, CG; parallel aerobic and resistance exercise, PARE; and PARE with daily consumption of green tea (PARE+GT). The experimental groups performed three months of progressive PARE training, six sessions per week, Each session consisted of 15 minutes of warming up, and 35 minutes of aerobic exercise(65% of the maximum heart rate, HRmax; Saturday, Monday, Wednesday), or resistance exercise (60-65% one Repetition Maximum, 1RM; Sunday, Tuesday, Thursday). Before and after two months of training, body fat percentage (%BF), blood pressure (BP), Body weight (BW), waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and blood lipid indices, aerobic and anaerobic power were measured. Statistical information was obtained by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test was performed through SPSS software (version 24) and the significance level was considered as p<0.05. Results: The results of data analysis showed that GT consumption does not have a significant effect on the variables. But in PARE and PARE+GT groups, the variables of %BF, aerobic capacity, aerobic, resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), resting diastolic blood pressure (DBP), blood triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) had a significant difference between the two stages before and after performing the test stages (p<0.05). However no difference was observed in body weight indices, body mass index, waist circumference to hip circumference ratio, heart rate Rest, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Conclusion: PARE training probably improves fat percentage, aerobic capacity, aerobic, SBP, DBP, TG, and LDL in overweight and obese women. But green tea consumption does not have more effect. |
Correspondence E-mail address: anis10slm@gmail.com
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Received: 5 Sept 2024; Revised: 5 Oct 2024; Accepted: 28 Nov 2024
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1. Introduction
Obesity is one of the major health problems in the world due to the rapid increase in its prevalence and the emergence of metabolic comorbidities (1). It was estimated that by 2030, 2.16 billion (38%) individuals of the world’s adult population will be overweight and 1.12 billion (20%) will be obese (2). In 2021, the national prevalence of normal weight, obesity, and overweight/obesity in ≥18-year-old Iranian adults was estimated at 33.61% (95% CI: 32.99–34.23), 24.96% (24.39–25.53), and 63.02% (62.39–63.65), respectively. Compared to women, Iranian men had a lower mean BMI (3). Obesity and overweight indicate excessive and abnormal accumulation of body fat (4) Behavioral risk factors such as unhealthy habits, improper diet, and inactivity can cause it to occur (5). Obesity is a risk factor for major chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases (6), various types of cancer (7), and premature death (8). Simple ways methods to measure overweight and obesity are tables of weight, height, body mass index (BMI), the ratio of waist circumference to hip circumference and the ratio of abdominal circumference to hip circumference (9). The leading standard in this field is BMI (normal: 19-24.9; overweight: 25-30; obese: above 30 (10). Studies show that BMI increases with age, and it is more common in women than in men (11). Physical activity is a key modifiable lifestyle behavior for obesity prevention. The evidence on physical activity for a healthy weight is largely based on studies of aerobic moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) including walking, cycling, or running alone (12). Recent position statements suggested that resistance or combined aerobic and resistance training may also be effective in achieving the same goal (13). Aerobic exercises (AE) by helping to burn fat and resistance exercises (RE) by increasing muscle mass can control blood and visceral fats, and all types of sports may increase the level of physical fitness (14). So both AE and RE are recommended for obesity prevention (15). Excess visceral adiposity contributes to elevated cardiometabolic risk, and waist circumference is commonly used as a surrogate measure of visceral adipose tissue (16). Although regular AE is known to improve abdominal obesity, its effect on waist circumference which is one of the factors for measuring body composition is unclear (17). Elevated or abnormal levels of lipids in the blood, which can result from obesity, are an important risk factor in people with obesity and overweight (18). Abnormalities in lipid profiles can increase the risk of metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases (19). Exercise can lead to weight loss (20) which may improve the lipid profile or some of its variables (21). Interventions that combine high-intensity aerobic and high-load resistance training (RE) exert beneficial effects that are superior to any other exercise modality at decreasing abdominal adiposity and improving lean body mass (22). On the other hand, nowadays, it is thought that dieting with antioxidant properties can play an important role in preventing the risk of obesity-related diseases (23). Exercise conducted simultaneously with the consumption of herbal supplements is one of the suggested methods for controlling obesity and its complications (24). Tea, the second-most popular drink worldwide (25) especially green tea, is an antioxidant with abundant health benefits (26) that may influence fat oxidation, body composition, and blood lipid profile in human subjects (27, 28). Green tea consumption probably leads to better results if combined with physical activity (29). However, several clinical trials have reported no association between obesity indices and GT supplementation (30, 31), but Aixin et al. in their review article, stated that consumption of green tea causes a reduction in LDL-C and TC concentrations in overweight and obese women. The decline in TG levels was notable, particularly in overweight patients with hypertriglyceridemia at baseline. In addition, a significant increase in HDL-C was detected in obese subjects following intake of green tea (32). Hosseini et al. also showed that exercise performed simultaneously with GT consumption in comparison with either alone has a greater effect on improving the lipid profile in overweight women (33). However, it was concluded in a systematic review that in human studies, green tea is not effective in controlling obese lipids (34). Obesity even increases the risk of cancers in women (35). HDL and TG are strong predictors of cardiovascular death. Women having low HDL-C levels and high TG levels had a high risk of cardiovascular death (36). Previous research on the effectiveness of green tea has been conflicting. Hence, we conducted this study to assess the effect of PARE training with the consumption of green tea on body composition, physical fitness, and serum lipids of overweight and obese women.
2. Methodology
2.1. Materials and methods
The research was a semi-experimental study with pre and post-test design. 45 overweight and obese women in Ardabil city volunteered to participate, then randomly assigned to three equal groups of CG, PARE, PARE+GT (n=15). 48 hours before and after the three-month exercise training program, blood samples were taken from the samples.
2.2. Participants
45 eligible volunteers (aged 25–45 years and with body mass index >25 kg/m2) participated in this study. Inclusion criteria were diagnosis of chronic diseases (cardiovascular, renal, etc.), musculoskeletal problems, and taking medications or dietary supplements known to affect the primary outcomes of the study. Exclusion criteria were the use of green tea with other herbal medicines or drugs and any additional therapy.
This study was conducted following the Declaration of Helsinki, and Ethical approval was obtained from the Rasht Branch, Islamic Azad University.
2.3. Measurements
2.3.1. Anthropometry
Body weight: The participants stood on a Beurer PS05 scale (Germany) with minimal clothing and without any movement. Their weight was measured with an accuracy of 0.1 kg.
Body mass index: BMI was calculated based on the ratio of weight (kilograms) to height (meters) squared (BMI=kg/m2).
Body Fat Percent: Subcutaneous body fat percentage was measured and recorded using a Lafayette 01127A caliper (USA) and the three-site Jackson-Pollock method at the upper arm, abdomen, and right thigh.
Waist to Hip ratio: Waist circumference (WC) was measured midway between the lowest rib and the pelvis in the position of expiration and hip circumference (HC) was measured at the widest circumference of the hip with a soft tape measure, then, by dividing the waist circumference by the hip circumference (WHR= WC/HC).
2.3.2. Anaerobic power: anaerobic power was measured by standard Wingate test on a Monark bicycle for 30 seconds.
2.2.3. Aerobic power: To measure maximal aerobic power (VO2max), the Storer-Davis maximal test was used on a Monark 894 ergometer bicycle and the following formula was used:
Women Max Aerobic Capacity=(9.39×Watts)+(7.7×Weight)-(5.88×Age)+1376
2.3.4. Heart rate variables
Blood pressure was measured using ALPK2 mercury sphygmomanometers (V-300EU, Japan). All measurements were taken from the left arm with the hand positioned parallel to the level of the heart. Heart rate was assessed using a Beurer pulse monitor (PM80, Germany).
2.3.5. Lipid profile
Blood samples for lipid profile analysis (cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and TG) were collected from participants using standard venipuncture procedures. Blood samples were collected at the beginning and end of the study following 8–12 hours of fasting. The serum was separated by centrifugation at 2000 RPM for 15–20 minutes. Lipid parameters were measured using automated laboratory techniques. For consistency, blood was collected from the antecubital vein of the participant’s left arm, and samples were processed immediately following collection to ensure the accuracy of results.
2.4. Intervention
2.4.1 Exercise program
The progressive parallel aerobic and resistance exercise program used in this study is shown in Table 1. That was performed six days/week in PARE and PARE+GT groups for three months. Aerobic training includes 60 minutes, starting with 65% of the maximum heart rate, (15 min of warm-up with running, stretching, and jumping and 10 min cooling down).
Resistance training sessions included nine movements with three sets(1 min rest between each sets, and 2 min rest between movements), which started with 60-65% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Every two weeks, the intensity of the exercise was increased by 5%. Exercise modes included: Bench Press, Leg Press, Seated Row, Shoulder Press, Leg extension, Triceps Extension, Hamstring Curl, Bicep Curl, and Calf Raise. 1RM of each participant for each exercise was obtained from the Brzeski formula:
1RM = Weight÷(1.0278−(0.0278×Number of repetitions))
Table 1. Exercise training program
Weeks | Aerobic training | Resistance training | |||||
1-2 | Minute | Intensity | Set | Repeat | Intensity | ||
35 | 65% | 3 | 10-12 | 60-65% | |||
3-4 | 35 | 70% | 3 | 10-12 | 65-70% | ||
5-6 | 35 | 75% | 3 | 10-12 | 70-75% | ||
7-8 | 35 | 80% | 3 | 10-12 | 75-80% | ||
2.4.2. Green tea supplement
The participates who were in PARE+GT group consumed green tea, three meals a day (one tea bag per meal) during the research period. Samples added 1 green tea bag to 1 glass (equivalent to 150 ml) of boiling water with a temperature of 80 to 85 degrees and put the lid on it for 6 to 8 minutes.
2.5. Statistical Methods
Data analyses are described based on the mean±standard deviation. After ensuring the normal distribution of research variables using the Shapiro-Wilk test, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey's post hoc tests were used to determine between-group changes. All calculations and statistical analyses were performed using SPSS software (IBM, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) at significance level of 0.05.
3. Results
The Kolmogorov–Smirnov test indicated normal distribution for all of the variables. Results of descriptive analysis (n=15 for each group) and the result of one-way ANOVA were presented in Table 2. Leven test showed the equality of variances (P>0.05).
Table 2. One way of ANOVA result between different groups (n= 15 in each group)
Variable | Group | Pre test Mean±SD | Post test Mean±SD | Sum of square | mean square | F | Sig |
Body weight (kg) | CG | 83.75±12.3 | 84.54±13.5 | 345.09 | 172.54 | 0.772 | 0.341 |
PARE | 83.82±10.1 | 80.94±8.2 | |||||
PARE+GT | 80.90±9.3 | 74.66±8.1 | |||||
BMI( kg/m2) | CG | 33.03±4.3 | 33.36±3.3 | 56.95 | 28.478 | 2.45 | 0.034* |
PARE | 33.02±3.8 | 31.88±3.4 | |||||
PARE+GT | 32.80±4.1 | 30.27±4.01 | |||||
%BF | CG | 41.40±4.2 | 42.02±4.1 | 84.412 | 42.706 | 4.09 | 0.025* |
PARE | 42.01±4.4 | 39.80±4.1 | |||||
PARE+GT | 41.63±4.1 | 39.10±4.8 | |||||
WHR | CG | 0.866±0.03 | 0.868±0.04 | 0.001 | 0.001 | 0.087 | 0.916 |
PARE | 0.850±0.05 | 0.841±0.11 | |||||
PARE+GT | 0.892±0.06 | 0.882±0.08 | |||||
Aerobic power (ml/kg/min) | CG | 19.053±2.2 | 18.86±2.6 | 3357.26 | 1678.63 | 161.54 | 0.001* |
PARE | 20.17±2.8 | 25.0±2.02 | |||||
PARE+GT | 19.56±2.4 | 26.53±2.5 | |||||
Anaerobic power (kg.m/S) | CG | 24.533±2.5 | 19.746±2.2 | 5574.83 | 2787.41 | 314.23 | 0.001* |
PARE | 23.238±2.0 | 31.30±2.4 | |||||
PARE+GT | 23.961±2.1 | 34.38±2.3 | |||||
HR rest | CG | 80.40±12.1 | 79.46±9.1 | 64.987 | 32.089 | 0.149 | 0.862 |
PARE | 78.07±12.8 | 76.53±9.4 | |||||
PARE+GT | 81.07±12.5 | 77.69±9.0 | |||||
SBP rest | CG | 128.8±18.1 | 129.47±18.5 | 32.6617 | 1633.089 | 4.113 | 0.023* |
PARE | 130.7±18.8 | 117.38±17.3 | |||||
PARE+GT | 129.31±17.5 | 118.0±8.0 | |||||
DBP rest | CG | 80.26±11.1 | 79.60±11.2 | 203.33 | 101.667 | 2.568 | 0.049* |
PARE | 77.76±11.3 | 73.69±11.8 | |||||
PARE+GT | 77.38±10.8 | 74.38±12.2 | |||||
HDL (mg/dL) | CG | 48.53±4.1 | 47.86±5.1 | 17.721 | 8.861 | 0.143 | 0.868 |
PARE | 47.07±4.4 | 47.84±5.2 | |||||
PARE+GT | 48.0±5.1 | 48.61±4.3 | |||||
LDL (mg/dL) | CG | 109.93±14.1 | 106.27±14.7 | 4052.77 | 4525.39 | 2.571 | 0.021* |
PARE | 117.85±14.8 | 98.15±12.1 | |||||
PARE+GT | 113.62±13.4 | 86.53±11.7 | |||||
Cholesterol (mg/dL) | CG | 194.27±17.1 | 193.20±16.4 | 3122.62 | 1561.31 | 0.902 | 0414 |
PARE | 204.62±18.1 | 188.46±17.7 | |||||
PARE+GT | 192.62±17.7 | 171.38±17.3 | |||||
TG (mg/dL) | CG | 133.2±14.1 | 132.27±15.8 | 9539.72 | 4769.86 | 2.849 | 0.040* |
PARE | 129.15±13.7 | 106.38±16.5 | |||||
PARE+GT | 160.0±15.3 | 98.46±14.9 |
TG: Triglyceride; LDL1: low-density lipoprotein; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; DBP rest: resting diastolic blood pressure; SBP rest: resting systolic blood pressure
*: P<0.05
The results of the one-way ANOVA showed that the BF%, BMI, aerobic and anaerobic power, resting systolic and diastolic BP, LDL, and TG had a significant difference between the groups.
Table 3. Mean comparisons (Tukey) between different groups
Variables | Group 1 | Group 2 | Average difference (d) | standard error | Significant level |
BMI | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 15.33 14.98 5.98 | 2.538 3.538 1.538 | 0.032* 0.021* 0.592 |
%BF | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 2.728 3.467 0.738 | 1.122 1.122 1.122 | 0.049* 0.010* 0.789 |
Aerobic power (ml/kg/min) | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 18.053 16.446 1.606 | 1.617 1.617 1.617 | 0.001* 0.001* 0.585 |
Anaerobic power (kg.m/S) | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 22.853 17.770 5.08 | 3.040 3.040 3.040 | 0.001* 0.001* 0.228 |
SBP rest | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 18.33 17.80 4.53 | 7.276 7.24 2.297 | 0.041* 0.048* 0.974 |
DBP rest | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 15.33 14.98 5.98 | 6.32 6.24 2.11 | 0.049* 0.032* 0.875 |
LDL-C (mg/dL) | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 24.33 38.75 4.33 | 15.489 15.489 15.489 | 0.041* 0.028* 0.975 |
TG (mg/dL) | CG CG PARE | PARE PARE+GT PARE+GT | 38.33 43.20 20.86 | 14.865 14.865 14.865 | 0.035* 0.016* 0.348 |
CG: control group; PARE: parallel aerobic and resistance exercise; PARE+GT: parallel aerobic and resistance exercise with consumption of green tea
The results of Tukey's comparisons showed that a significant difference was observed between the CG and experimental groups (PARE+GT and PARE groups). The result showed a decrease in BMI, BF %, resting SBP and DBP, LDL-C, TG, and an improvement in aerobic and anaerobic power. However, no significant difference was observed between the PARE and PARE+GT groups in these variables. In other words, green tea did not affect the research variables.
4. Discussion
The results of our research showed that there was a significant decrease in BF% and BMI in experimental groups. However other selected indices of body composition did not show any significant difference. There is a growing body of evidence showing that intake of GT improves anthropometric indices by reducing BMI, body weight, WHR, and BFP (37). Nanri et al (38) and Yonekura et al (39) reported that daily GT consumption was inversely associated with high BMI, and BF%, in middle-aged Japanese women. But Roberts et al. showed that body composition and heart markers in healthy and overweight people who had regular physical activity, no significant effect was found with green tea consumption (40). Maki et al reported that green tea consumption combined with aerobic exercise did not significantly impact total body fat mass (29). This discrepancy in results may be related to the duration of the study, and failure to follow a diet or the amount of green tea consumed. The main effects of green tea on body composition are proposed to be due to catechins (41). Potential mechanisms for the effect of green tea on body weight and BFP involve inhibition of adipocyte differentiation and proliferation, reduced fat absorption, inhibition of catechol-methyl-transferase, increased energy expenditure, increased utilization of fat, and increased energy expenditure and thermogenesis (42). During moderate-intensity exercise, energy expenditure is several times greater than at rest, and absolute rates of both lipolysis and fat oxidation are also increased (43). The possible reason why RT can induce positive changes in body composition is that it increases skeletal muscle mass, further improving the basal metabolic rate and energy expenditure (44). Concerning exercise, Bellicha et al. research exercise led to a significant weight loss, fat loss, and visceral fat loss but No difference in weight, fat, and visceral loss was found between aerobic and high-intensity (52). Muscle mass significantly increased in the RE (54) and AE groups, also, a significant decrease was observed in the body fat percentage in all groups, Dianatinasab et al found that muscle mass significantly increased in the RE and PE groups, And a significant decrease was observed in the body fat percentage in all groups (55, 62). the current results suggest that Combined training (AE and RE) is the best exercise modality for improving body composition and inflammatory status in overweight and obese individuals (20). Furthermore, lipolytic activation is delayed in obese individuals, and RT may play a role by up-regulating adipose tissue lipolysis and by increasing energy expenditure (53). AE has been stated as an integral component of interventions to reduce obesity (50). so In a word, we recommend that overweight and obese people adopt AE combined with RT as their primary form of exercise while paying attention to caloric restriction (56).
Our results showed that there was a significant difference in blood triglycerides and LDL between the studied groups, but other blood lipid indices did not show significant differences. Also, the results showed there is no significant difference between the PARE and PARE + GT, In other words, green tea had no effect. Asbaghi et al investigated the effect of green tea extract on lipid profile and the results that long-term GT intervention may reduce serum concentrations of TG and TC (45) but Xu et al reported that consumption of green tea lowers LDL cholesterol, but not HDL cholesterol or triglycerides in both normal weight subjects and those who were overweight/obese (46). Rostamian et al. reported that resistance training combined with GT consumption may enhance body composition, lower triglyceride, and increase high-density lipoprotein in sedentary obese/overweight people (27). Wood et al reported aerobic exercise training positively changes the standard lipid profile of sedentary and otherwise healthy adults with ≥3 MetS factors (47). The reasons for the inconsistency could be the lack of control over participant's diet, type and intensity of exercise. incorporation of green tea into exercise training does not seem to exert additional benefits on lipid profile and it warrants further investigations in the future (48).
The HRV indices (resting SBP, and DBP) have a significant decline. As HRV declines with age, it is easy to speculate that the promotion of physical activity should be recommended, as it can improve autonomic cardiac modulation (51). One of the explanations for the observed associations of lower physical activity with lower HRV could be that it decreases blood volume and left ventricular stroke volume to result in an increased heart rate on account of increased sympathetic activity (49). Such activity would aid in preventing chronic diseases, such as diabetes, cardiac events, stroke, and so forth, to accordingly lead to a better quality of life.
In our study both aerobic and anaerobic power had a significant improvement in PARE and PARE + GT in comparison with CG group. The lack of physical activity and the sedentary lifestyle of people bring along important health problems such as coronary heart diseases, peripheral vascular diseases and hypertension. By providing physical capacity development together with physical activities to be done, we can protect ourselves against the risks of diseases caused by lack of movement (57). The enhancements in aerobic capacity may be attributed to two critical aspects of aerobic fitness: the central component (i.e., improved oxygen delivery) and the peripheral component (i.e., increased utilization of oxygen by the active muscles during aerobic activities) (58). Obese individuals typically show a decline in aerobic performance and diverse degrees of dyspnea in association with mechanical abnormalities, increased ventilator requirements secondary to the increased metabolic load, and greater effort in breathing (59). Consequently, they may be particularly predisposed to respiratory muscle fatigue during exercise. It is therefore important to improve respiratory and aerobic exercise capacity through the application of aerobic exercise intervention to obese (61). In general, aerobic exercise training is known to enhance aerobic performance via increased capillary density, increased myoglobin content, increased number, size and efficiency of mitochondria, and activation of enzymes associated with oxidative phosphorylation (60). This study had several limitations. It was conducted exclusively on women, without considering for their menstrual cycles, which might influence the results due to hormonal and gender differences. Additionally, participants were not provided with a specific diet plan, nor was their dietary intake controlled.
5. Conclusion
The results of this study showed that parallel exercises (aerobic and resistance) improve biological indicators in both aerobic and anaerobic power variables, as well as improve blood triglyceride levels, reduce body fat percentage, and improve BMI, however, it does not make a significant difference in other selected indicators of body composition and lipid profile. Nevertheless, the consumption of green tea did not cause any additional effects.
6. Acknowledgment
We would like to extend sincere appreciation to the people who participated in the study.
Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest relating to the publication of this manuscript.
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