The Effect of Cognitive Linguistic Approach on Promoting Learning Modal Verbs
Samira Seifi
1
(Department of English Language, Kerman Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran)
Valeh Jalali
2
(Assistant Professor of TEFL, Department of English Language, Kerman branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran)
Neda Fatehi Rad
3
(Department of English Language, Kerman Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran)
الکلمات المفتاحية: Cognitive Linguistics (CL), Conceptual Instruction, Modal Verbs, , Verbal Instruction,
ملخص المقالة :
This study addressed the effect of different types of Cognitive Linguistics (CL)-based instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. To explore this, a quasi-experimental pre-test posttest control group design was used. As the participants, three classes of intermediate EFL learners(60 female) from a private language institute in Kerman, Iran were selected through convenience sampling. The instruments used to collect data included the Quick Placement Test (QPT) and two parallel multiple-choice fill-in-the-blank modal verbs tests. During the treatment period, the two experimental groups benefited from conceptual instruction and verbal instruction on modal verbs. However, the control group enjoyed non-CL-based instruction on modal verbs.To analyze the data, normality test, descriptive and inferential statistics were used using SPSS21 software. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was used to check the normality of distribution of the data. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation and standard error of mean was run to measure the pattern of the participants’ performance in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test. Inferential statistics involved one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey Post hoc test. The results of data analysis confirmed the effectiveness of both types of CL-based instruction (i.e., conceptual instruction and verbal instruction) on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. Moreover, as shown by the results, conceptual instruction was more effective than verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. The findings have some implications for EFL learners, teachers, and curriculum planners.
The Effect of Cognitive Linguistic Approach on Promoting Learning Modal Verbs
ABSTRACT
This study addressed the effect of different types of Cognitive Linguistics (CL)-based instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. To explore this, a quasi-experimental pre-test posttest control group design was used. As the participants, three classes of intermediate EFL learners(60 female) from a private language institute in Kerman, Iran were selected through convenience sampling. The instruments used to collect data included the Quick Placement Test (QPT) and two parallel multiple-choice fill-in-the-blank modal verbs tests. During the treatment period, the two experimental groups benefited from conceptual instruction and verbal instruction on modal verbs. However, the control group enjoyed non-CL-based instruction on modal verbs.To analyze the data, normality test, descriptive and inferential statistics were used using SPSS21 software. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test was used to check the normality of distribution of the data. Descriptive statistics including mean, standard deviation and standard error of mean was run to measure the pattern of the participants’ performance in the pre-test, immediate post-test and delayed post-test. Inferential statistics involved one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey Post hoc test. The results of data analysis confirmed the effectiveness of both types of CL-based instruction (i.e., conceptual instruction and verbal instruction) on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. Moreover, as shown by the results, conceptual instruction was more effective than verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. The findings have some implications for EFL learners, teachers, and curriculum planners.
KEYWORDS: Cognitive Linguistics (CL); Conceptual Instruction, Modal Verbs, , Verbal Instruction
INTRODUCTION
Recently, the potential insights of a relatively new approach to linguistics called Cognitive Linguistics (CL) have taken the attention of L2 practitioners (Tyler, Mueller, & Ho, 2011). In the 1980s, CL was introduced as a new linguistic theory (Talmy, 2000). CL is a school of linguistics and cognitive science in which language is viewed as a reflection of human cognitive abilities and something that could not be separated from other human activities. As Boers (2013) says, “Cognitive Linguistics treats language and its acquisition as usage-based and as reflecting the general cognitive abilities that operate in our interaction with the world”. The recent years have witnessed the impact of this new linguistic theory on the field of second language acquisition and teaching (De Knop, Boers, & De Rycker, 2010). CL refers to an approach to language which is characterized by a number of common assumptions (De Knop, Boers, & De Rycker, 2010). There is evidence in the literature that CL, as the complementary to other language methods, seeks the aim of making the process of teaching and learning easier (Talmy, 2000). The argument is that CL can explain complex and difficult linguistic phenomena including prepositions, phrasal verbs, conditionals, and articles precisely (Dirven & Radden 2007).
One of the aspects of the English language which is difficult for English foreign language learners (EFL) is modal verbs which express certain tones of action such as ability, possibility, request, permission, obligation, etc., depending on their function in various contexts. All of the modals only occur in their helping form, that is, they cannot act alone as the main verb in a sentence. The modal auxiliary verbs are always followed by the base form (Nikolova, 2015). The correct use of the modal verbs including must, can, should, ought to, might, etc. is difficult for EFL learners in the sense that they cannot be learned and used in appropriate contexts easily (Nikolova, 2015). In the same vein, it has been proposed that contextual nature of the use of the modal verbs or diversity of meaning of the modal verbs in different contexts is what makes learning them difficult in EFL environments (Khojasteh & Rainer, 2013, as cited in Hung, Vien & Vu, 2018). According to Yu (2022), modal verbs present a complex semantic system and they are often ambiguous in meaning. Therefore, they are a difficult subject in linguistics and have attracted much attention. Some scholars in the field (e.g., Mortelmans, 2012; Nikolova, 2015; Tyler, Mueller & Ho, 2010) have provided evidence in support of the effectiveness of CL-oriented instruction on modal verbs learning. CL has led to several opinions on other functional approaches related to assessment of functional approaches (Hurng, Vien & Vu, 2018). In addition, CL differs from other approaches to language study in its assumption that language develops certain features of the mind (Nikolova, 2015). Mortelmans, (2012), believed that CL has the potential to solve EFL learners' problems in learning modal verbs as a challenging and complex issue. To shed more light on this issue, this study is going to investigate the effectiveness of different types of CL-laden approaches on learning modal verbs among Iranian EFL learners.
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Extant literature demonstrates evidence for the complexity and difficulty of learning modal verbs in EFL contexts (Abbuhl, 2005; Tyler, 2012). What adds to this complexity is the polysemous nature of the modal verbs. To be more explicit, the modal verbs can perform a variety of functions in different contexts. Hence, each modal verb has different meanings based on the situation wherein the modal verb is used. The common functions performed by the modal verbs in different situations include ability, obligation, possibility, permission, etc. (Tyler, 2012).
This shows the need to use effective teaching methods, strategies and techniques in EFL classes so that learners can learn the modal verbs more easily. However, field observations show that still traditional teaching methods are prevalent in most of educational settings in Iran. The traditional modal verbs instruction in the English language mainly focuses on the presentation of the mere meaning of the modal verbs, or at best, several example sentences. Due to a lack of language environment and sufficient input, students are often only aware of the meaning of the verbs while ignorant of the contextual usage, grammatical construction, not to mention semantic and pragmatic patterns (Chu & Liu, 2007). In a word, students can recognize the verbs meaning but do not know how to put them into correct and appropriate use in different contexts.
Modal verbs are highly grammatical, framed verbs with relatively prominent cognitive features in language. Moreover, while the modality issue and modal verbs have been investigated as positively influenced by CL-based teaching approaches and methods by previous scholars (i.e., Mortelmans, 2012; Nikolova, 2015; Tyler, Mueller & Ho, 2010), the researcher found that research in this area is scarce in Iran. More specifically, there was no recent study in the Iranian context on the effectiveness of different types of CL-based instruction on EFL learners’ modal verb learning. To fill this gap, this study was after finding answers to the following research questions:
1) Do different types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction have any significant effect on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning?
2) Which type of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction is more effective on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning?
LITERATURE REVIEW
THEORETICAL ISSUES
CL is a semantics-based usage-based approach, emerged against generative linguistics, which considers language as domain-specific component that is not dependent upon general cognitive abilities (Evans, 2012). CL is a rapidly growing and relatively new approach to language study wherein language is investigated as related to cognition. According to CL, what leads to language acquisition is its usage and general cognitive abilities (Ansari, 2016). CL is informed by cognitive, social and communicative theories. To put it another way, it is based on how humans encode what they experience from their interactions with the physical world in language (Langacker, 2008). Accordingly, from the interactions with the physical world, humans form their embodied senses of what they have experienced, which then form perceptions and in turn conceptions before linguistic meaning and form are established in the human mind (Evans & Green, 2006). It is argued by CL that language is a reflection of how humans encode the social events in their experiences. A review of previous studies demonstrates that CL has implications for the teaching of English as a foreign language (TEFL). Moreover, it has been shown that the learners receiving CL-based treatment could understand the target items without effort, and these target items could retain longer in the learners’ minds (Hung, Vien & Vu, 2018).
Furthermore, modality is a cover term for devices which allow speakers to express varying degrees of commitment to, or belief in, a proposition (Saeed, 2009). In many languages, modality is linguistically organized by different means with modal verbs being the most prominent ones. Modal auxiliaries constitute one of the major grammatical categories in English. They have two aspects of function: deontic and epistemic. The basic meanings of modal auxiliaries in English typically convey some indication of the speaker’s perspective or attitude toward the situation or state of affairs being described (Wu, 2008). Acquiring the forms and functions of the modal verbs is essential in the process of learning English. They convey different meanings depending on the situations in which they occur. In this regard, when the learner decides to use one of the modal verbs, he is also deciding not to use the others. Wu (2008) states that modal verbs in English “convey some indication of the speaker’s perspective or attitude toward the situation or state of affairs being described.” This is considered one of the major factors in rendering learning modal auxiliaries, i.e., using the same modal verb to refer to two different situations.
EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Boers (2000) made an attempt to investigate how CL impacts EFL learners’ long-term retention of phrasal verbs and idioms. To this end, an immediate gap-fill posttest and two delayed posttests were administered. The results showed that the experimental group outperformed the control group in all the three posttests. According to the results, long-term retention of phrasal verbs and idioms was significantly impacted by CL-based instruction. Another study with the same goal was taken by Skoufaki (2008). Choosing an experimental design, this study also led to the confirmation of the findings reported by Boers (2000). Also, Tyler et al. (2011) made an effort to test the effectiveness of CL-based teaching of the semantics of English prepositions on EFL students’ knowledge of prepositions. The findings revealed that most of the participants showed improvements in their knowledge of the meanings of the prepositions. Also, the difference between the pretest results to the posttest results was significant. These revealed the significant effect of CL-based teaching on knowledge of prepositions in EFL learners. In the study by Bielak and Pawlak (2013), the influence of CL-based teaching of English on learning tense and aspects was explored through using CL-based explicit and form-focused instruction. At the end of the study, the participants who had been exposed to CL-based instruction outperformed those who had enjoyed traditional teaching method. This led to the conclusion that CL-based instruction is of significant effectiveness on learning tense and aspects. In a more recent study conducted by Pan (2022), the basic concepts in CL were applied in teaching conceptual metaphors of English prepositions. The experimental results indicated that the learners receiving CL-based treatment outperformed those depending on rote-learning. Regarding the effect of CL-based approach on learning the modal verbs, the studies by Mortelmans (2012), Nikolova (2015), Tyler, Mueller and Ho (2010) addressed the issue and
reported significant differences between the traditional group which was subjected to traditional teaching method and CL group which enjoyed different methods, techniques and tasks with CL taste and orientation. Vakhovska (2018) investigated the relationship between emotions, emotional concepts and emotion names in first-person verbal reports and emotion experience from CL perspective in a phenomenological study. As shown by the results, CL-based argumentation that orients emotion names cannot fully explain emotion experience. Chau (2019) addressed the effects of using CL on learning English prepositions ‘above, among, at, behind, besides, between, in, in front of, on and under’ among EFL learners. The results of this experimental study revealed the outperformance of the cognitive group in comparison to the traditional group in the post-test. Accordingly, the significant impact of CL-based instruction on learning English prepositions was confirmed. Naperala (2020) aimed at corroborating ecological validity of CL-based assessment methods. According to the results, different assessment methods are of different outputs depending on different factors including individual cognitive capacity, cognitive load of different tasks, discourse performance under increased processing demands, etc. The researcher suggested that the consistency of performance of assessment methods should be enhanced so that outcome variations are avoided.
As is seen in the reviewed literature, empty in the literature is the place of an experimental study in the context of Iran on the effect of different types of CL-based instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. This study was an effort to bridge this gap.
METHOD
PARTICIPANTS
Three classes of intermediate EFL learners (n =68) from a private language institute in Kerman, Iran were selected through convenience sampling, and homogenized through the Quick Placement Test. Some of the learners (N=8) whose English proficiency level is not within the range being studied, were excluded from the study based on the results of the Quick Placement Test. They could not get the minimum required score of the test. Therefore, the final sample consisted of 60 intermediate EFL learners in the age range of 22-34. Then, the three classes were divided into three groups namely, conceptual group (CG) (N= 20), verbal group (VG) (N= 20) and non-cognitive linguistics group (NCLG) (N= 20).
INSTRUMENTS
The following instruments were employed in this study.
QUICK PLACEMENT TEST (QPT)
The Quick Placement Test (QPT), developed by Oxford University Press and the Cambridge ESOL Examination Syndicate, was employed to ensure the homogeneity of the participants regarding their language proficiency at the outset of the study. This test includes 60 multiple-choice items (20 grammar items, 20 vocabulary items, and 20 cloze test items). This test was utilized to identify the intermediate EFL learners. The test lasted about 40 minutes to complete. Moreover, the reliability index was .81, as obtained by Cronbach's Alpha coefficient. Also, for the aim of the current study, the test validity was ensured by expert judgments. This was done by asking six ELT experts who taught at the university level for more than 15 years to comment on the test. They confirmed the test's appropriateness for the present study.
PRE- AND POSTTESTS
Two parallel multiple-choice fill-in-the-blank tests, developed and validated by Al-Hessa (2014), were used to measure the participants’ modal verbs learning in the pre-test and post-test. Each test consisted of 20 items which missed a modal. The respondents were to choose the most appropriate modal from among four possible choices. For this study, the reliability indices of the pre-test and post-test were calculated .80 and .86, respectively. Moreover, a team of five Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) experts commented on the tests and confirmed their validity.
PROCEDURES
Having sampled the participants, the researcher made them informed of the goals of the present study and took their consent for participation in the study. Then, the three intact classes were divided into three groups namely, conceptual group (CG) (N= 20), verbal group (VG) (N= 20) and non-cognitive linguistics group (NCLG) (N= 20). Next, all the three groups were pre-tested. One week later, the treatment sessions, consisting of 12 mainstream educational sessions of the institute, started wherein the CG as exposed to concept-oriented instruction, the VG to verbalization-oriented instruction, and the NCLG to traditional instruction on the use of modal verbs. The educational sessions were held twice a week for 90 minutes.
To be more specific, in each session of the class, in the CG, the participants were provided with image schemata of various meanings of the modal verbs as well as the explicit meanings of the modal verbs. The mentioned image schemata included diagrams showing the meaning and function of the modal verbs in an abstract way. Moreover, the CG was exposed to group tasks wherein they were to discuss and verbalize what they learned from the image schemata in groups and present the outcome of the group discussion and verbalization in a worksheet. Finally, internalization was encouraged in the CG by asking the members to internalize the images by reviewing them at the last 10 minutes of the class sessions.
In the VG, in each class session, similar to the CG, the participants benefited from verbalization-laden activities. But the two groups were different in the sense that the VG members were exposed to verbalization-oriented activities in the absence of explicit explanation of the meaning of the modal verbs, images and internalization step. More particularly, in the VG, the teacher implicitly told the students the meanings of the modal verbs in a general way without using any image schemata. For example, the teacher explained that while the modal verbs ‘should’ and ‘must’ shows obligation, ‘may’ shows possibility and permission. Moreover, similar to the CG, the VG was provided with verbalization task opportunities in which they could verbalize and discuss what they had learned with their group members, and present the results of their verbalization and discussion in a worksheet.
In the NCLG, traditional instruction on the use of modal verbs were provided. That is, the teacher explicitly presented the meanings of the modal verbs in Persian, and sked the learners to memorize them by rote learning in the last 10-15 minutes of each class session.
It is worth noting that the procedure followed during the treatment period was designed through consulting the previous similar studies including those by Abbuhl (2005), Mortelmans (2012), Nikolova (2015), and Tyler, Mueller, and Ho, (2010), and merging the tasks used in them.
To analyze the data, descriptive and inferential statistics were used using SPSS21 software. Descriptive statistics included mean, standard deviation and standard error of mean. Inferential statistics involved one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey Post hoc Test
DESIGN
To explore the impact of applying a CL approach on learning the modal verbs among intermediate EFL learners, a quasi-experimental pre-test posttest control group design was used. This type of design is characterized by the presence of the experimental and control groups. However, while the experimental group(s) is given the treatment, the control group is deprived from it. But all the recruited groups take exactly the same tests in the form of pre-test and post-test (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen Irvine, & Walker, 2019).
RESULTS
The results of normality test showed that the data was normally distributed at %95 confidence level. This normal distribution showed that for data analysis and mean comparison, parametric tests could be used.
First, descriptive statistics was calculated to measure the participants’ knowledge of modal verbs in the pre-test and post-test. Table 1 shows the results.
Table 1
The Mean Scores Obtained for the CG, VG, NCLG
Group | Pre-test | Post-test | ||||
CG | N | 20 | 20 | |||
Mean | 10.7500 | 15.2000 | ||||
Std. Deviation | .72415 | .21900 | ||||
VG | N | 20 | 20 | |||
Mean | 9.6500 | 14.7901 | ||||
Std. Deviation | .81497 | .25513 | ||||
NCLG | N | 20 | 20 | |||
Mean | 7.3000 | 10.3080 | ||||
Std. Deviation | .85869 | .76632 | ||||
Table 1 shows that the mean scores obtained for the CG, VG, NCLG in the pre-tests were 10.75, 9.65, and 7.30, respectively. Moreover, the standard deviation values obtained for the pre-test of the CG, VG, NCLG included .72, .81, and .85.
Furthermore, as shown in Table 1 the mean scores of the CG, VG, NCLG in the post-test were 15.20, 14.79, and 10.30, respectively. Moreover, .21, .25, and .76 were obtained as the standard deviations of the three groups in the post-test, respectively. The pattern of the three groups’ performance in the pre-test and post-test is illustrated in Figure 1.
Figure 1
the Pattern of the Three Groups’ Performance in the Pre-test and Post-test
Then, at the inferential level, the three groups' mean scores in the pre-test and post-test were compared with each other through running one-way ANOVA. The results of one-way ANOVA for the scores in the pre-test and post-test are shown in Table 1.
Table 2
Result of One Way Anova
Sig | F |
|
0.864 | 412 | CG |
0.000 | 9.262 | Pre -Post |
0.75 | 3.764 | VG |
0.000 | 18.583 | Pre -Post |
3.41 | 3.020 | NCLG |
0.000 | 19.337 | Pre -Post |
As shown in Table 2, the observed between-group differences in the pre-test were not significant in the CG, VG, and NCLG (F=412, p>.0.05; F=3.76, p>.0.05; F=3.02, p>.0.05). However, between-group differences were significant in the post-test (F=9.26, p<.0.05; F=18.58, p<.0.05; F=19.33, p<.0.05). This means that there was a significant difference among the mean scores of the three groups on the post-test. To locate the significant difference(s), the Tukey post hoc test was used, the results of which are shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Results of Tukey Post hoc Test
(I) Group | (J) Group | Std. Error | Sig. | 95% Confidence Interval | |
Lower Bound | Upper Bound | ||||
CG | VG | 3.26515 | .007 | 4.0178 | 7.9170 |
NCLG | 3.26515 | .000 | 4.3326 | 6.2674 | |
VG | CG | 3.26515 | .007 | 7.9170 | 14.0178 |
NCLG | 3.26515 | .001 | 2.3830 | 4.3178 | |
NCLG | CG | 3.26515 | .000 | 6.2674 | 12.3326 |
VG | 3.26515 | .001 | 4.3178 | 12.3830 | |
The Tukey test indicated that the mean scores of the CG and VG were significantly higher than that of the NCLG. This shows that both types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction had significant effects on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. This indicates that different types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction had significant effects on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning.
Moreover, there was a significant difference (Sig= .007, p<.0.05) between the conceptual instruction and verbal instruction in terms of their effectiveness on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. This, coupled with the results of descriptive statistics (Table 1) which showed the outperformance of the CG compared with the VG in the post-test, confirm that conceptual instruction has been more effective than verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning.
DISCUSSIONS
Regarding to the research question ‘Which type of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction (i.e., conceptual instruction and verbal instruction) is more effective on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning?’, it was revealed that conceptual instruction was more effective on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. Similar to the present study, Tyler, Mueller, and Ho, (2010) found that concept-based instruction was significantly more
effective than verbalization instruction in improving EFL learners’ knowledge of modal verbs. To justify this finding, it can be argued that using picture diagrams of a lexical item has a pivotal role in learners’ conceptualization since it provides learners with an opportunity to foreground a scene and focus their attention on it (Talmy, 1988). Indeed, picture diagrams help learners develop their awareness and conceptualization of target forms and meanings. Previous studies have shown that awareness-raising and consciousness-raising play an important role in EFL learning. In this regard, Schmidt (2012) believed that noticing played a crucial role in 85 facilitating the learning process. In the same vein, according to Lee and Huang's (2008) argument, noticing has the potential to make input more perceptible to learners. Their argument is that noticing makes targeted form processing easier for learners in a more explicit sense, according to Smith (1981), input needs to be recognized first to be processed for acquisition by second language learners. Apparently, using image schemata, explicit explanations, verbalization, and other cognitive tasks can make input more noticeable for learners. As well, in justifying the higher effectiveness of conceptual instruction compared with verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verb learning, the role of enhancement of abstract thinking as a result of using image schemata can be mentioned (Condon, 2008). The other justification for this finding is the reconciliation of abstractness and concreteness. This is done through merging explicit explanation of modal verb meanings with image schemata
CONCLUSION
This study was after finding answers to two research questions. The first research question dealt with the effect of different types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. The results of data analysis confirmed the effectiveness of both types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction (i.e., conceptual instruction and verbal instruction) on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning.
The second research question addressed recognition of the type of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction which proved to be more effective on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning. As shown by the results, conceptual instruction was more effective than verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning.
The results are in explicit conformity with the findings of the study by Mortelmans (2012), Nikolova (2015), and Tyler, Mueller, and Ho, (2010) that proved the significant effectiveness of Cognitive Linguistics approach on learning modal verbs in EFL contexts. The findings are also implicitly consistent with those reported by Abbuhl (2005), Berendi, Csabi, and Kövecses (2008), Boers (2000), Jacobsen (2012), Ying (2019), and Nakahara (2005), according to which Cognitive Linguistic approach has a significantly positive impact on EFL learners’ writing quality, English phrasal verbs, and conditional verbs, respectively.
Furthermore, similar to the present study, Tyler, Mueller, and Ho, (2010) found that concept-based instruction was significantly more effective that verbalization-based instruction in improving EFL learners’ knowledge of modal verbs.
To justify this finding, it can be argued that using picture diagrams of a lexical item plays a pivotal role in learners’ conceptualization since it provides the learners with an opportunity to foreground a scene and focus their attention on it (Talmy, 1988). Indeed, the picture diagrams help learners develop their awareness and conceptualization of the target forms and meanings. This awareness raising and consciousness raising has been proved to play a significant role in EFL learning in previous studies. In this regard, Schmidt (2012) believed that noticing plays a key facilitating role in the learning process. In the same vein, according to Lee and Huang's (2008) argument, noticing has the potential to make input more perceptible to learners. Their argument is that noticing makes targeted form processing easier for learners. In a more explicit sense, according to the noticing hypothesis proposed by Smith (1981), input needs to be noticed first to be processed for acquisition by second language learners. Apparently, using image schemata, explicit explanations, verbalization, and other cognitive tasks can make input more noticeable for learners.
Moreover, it can be argued that possibly extrapolation and generalization ability of the learners has been enhanced as a result of implementing Cognitive Linguistics approach, and this has led to less complexities and difficulties in retaining the modal verbs. As the second justification for this finding, it can be said that since different kinds of cognitive tasks can significantly reduce learners' anxiety (Sami Ali, 2001, as cited in Kazemi, 2012), this in turn, may have contributed to their increased modal verbs learning. This justification is enhanced taking the significant negative role of anxiety in EFL learning into consideration. Another justification proposed by the researcher is that since cognitive tasks increase learners' motivation to learn language, this leads to higher levels of performance among them. Furthermore, the researcher believes that another possible justification for this finding is that cognitive instruction increases learners' autonomy and this leads to their significant improvement in learning English modal verbs. As another possible justification for this finding, cognitive linguistics-based instruction enhances learning through participation in social experiences with a more knowledgeable adult. In other words, the learners’ interactions with the teacher and their peers in group works may help them to learn prepositions more easily. Moreover, the argument made by Tekdal and Sonmez, (2018) which says that the development of higher psychological functions occurs through social interaction and collaboration which takes place in the classes wherein teachers use cognitive instruction can be proposed as a justification for this finding. This implies that cognitive tasks enhance cooperative learning, and it can contribute to improvement of learning among learners (Tekdal & Sonmez, 2018).
In justifying the higher effectiveness of conceptual instruction in comparison with verbal instruction on EFL learners’ modal verbs learning, the role of enhancement of abstract thinking as a result of using image schemata can be mentioned (Condon, 2008). The other justification which can be put forth for this finding can be the reconciliation of abstractness and concreteness through merging explicit explanation of the meanings of the modal verbs with image schemata.
In sum, based on the results, it can be concluded that different types of Cognitive Linguistics-based instruction are of more effectiveness than traditional mainstream instruction on EFL learners’ learning modal verbs. Moreover, it is also concluded that Cognitive Linguistics approach can significantly help learners learn English modal verbs. Furthermore, this conclusion is made that conceptual instruction is more effective on improving learners’ modal verbs learning. Accordingly, it can be concluded that using conceptualization-based instruction has the potential to make learning English modal verbs easier for learners in EFL contexts.
All in all, it is suggested that EFL learners benefit from Cognitive Linguistics-laden instruction in their grammar classes in an attempt to help students learn and retain English modal verbs more effectively. However, it cannot be denied that this requires cooperation and participation of students in a variety of cognitive tasks which need group work, verbalization, discussion, internalization and similar activities.
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