تروریسم محیطزیستی با محوریت مخاصمات مسلحانه در پرتو حقوق کیفری بینالمللی
الموضوعات :
بهروز سپهری
1
,
نوروز کارگری
2
,
محمد آشوری
3
,
قاسم قاسمی
4
1 - دانشجوی دکتری، گروه حقوق جزا و جرمشناسی، دانشکده حقوق، الهیات و علوم سیاسی، واحد علوم و تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران.
2 - استادیار، گروه حقوق جزا و جرمشناسی، دانشکده حقوق، الهیات و علوم سیاسی، واحد علوم و تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران. (مسوول مکاتبات)
3 - استاد، گروه حقوق جزا و جرمشناسی، دانشکده حقوق، الهیات و علوم سیاسی، واحد علوم و تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران.
4 - استادیار، گروه حقوق جزا و جرمشناسی، دانشکده حقوق، الهیات و علوم سیاسی، واحد علوم و تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران.
تاريخ الإرسال : 18 الثلاثاء , رمضان, 1443
تاريخ التأكيد : 20 الأربعاء , جمادى الأولى, 1444
تاريخ الإصدار : 29 الثلاثاء , شعبان, 1444
الکلمات المفتاحية:
جنایات بینالمللی,
تروریسم محیطزیستی,
محیطزیست,
مخاصمات مسلحانه,
حقوق بشردوستانه بینالمللی,
ملخص المقالة :
تروریسم محیطزیستی، رفتار خشونتآمیزی است که با قصد سلب صلح، نظم و امنیت جوامع بشری، از طریق هدف یا ابزار قرار دادن محیطزیست، حیات و سلامتی انسانها و امنیت محیطزیست را با خطر جدی روبرو میسازد و هر گاه همزمان با مخاصمات مسلحانه و از جانب یکی از طرفین مخاصمه رخ دهد، خسارات گسترده و جبرانناپذیری را بر جای میگذارد و نه تنها سلامتی و حیات نسل معاصر، که سلامتی نسلهای آینده را نیز در معرض خطر قرار داده و نیز قابلیت زیست سالم را از محیطزیست سلب میکند، لذا بررسی راهکارهای مقابله با اینگونه وقایع، هدف اصلی پژوهش جاری میباشد.
پژوهش حاضر به روش توصیفی تحلیلی و به صورت اسنادی از طرق بهرهگیری از منابع کتابخانهای و الکترونیکی اعم از کتاب، مقاله، پایاننامه، مقررات و اسناد بینالمللی به زبانهای فارسی و انگلیسی موجود صورت پذیرفته است.
تنها راه مقابله با این پدیدهی جنایی، مقید کردن طرفین مخاصمه به هنجارها و مقررات مربوط به حقوق بشردوستانهی بینالمللی و جرمانگاری نقض اینگونه مقررات است، تا ضمن کنترل خشونت طرفین مخاصمه در حدود مقررات بینالمللی، تعرض از ایندسته از مقررات، موجب تعقیب کیفری با اتهام جنایات بینالمللی یا جنایات شدید دارای اهمیت بینالمللی گردد.
با وجود اینکه ماده 5 اساسنامه دیوان کیفری بینالمللی 1998، تروریسم محیطزیستی را در شمار جنایات بینالمللی پیشبینی نکرده، اما به خاطر آثار زیانبار عمیق و جبرانناپذیر در حیات و سلامتی انسانها و سلامت محیط زیست و قابلیت سرایت اینگونه آثار به مناطق دوردست و حتی به نسلهای آینده، دکترین حقوقی و اسناد بینالمللی، تروریسم محیطزیستی را نمونهی حادی از تروریسم شناخته و اهمیت آن را در ردیف جنایات بینالمللی دانسته و آثار جنایات بینالمللی را بر آن مترتب میدانند.
المصادر:
Schofield Timothy. "The Environment as an Ideological Weapon: A Proposal to Criminalize Environmental Terrorism", 26 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev; 1999.
Mashhadi Ali, Fahimi Azizollah. "Protecting the Environment in Armed Conflict from the Perspective of Islam and International Humanitarian Law". Tehran: Khorsandi Publications; 2016. (In Persian)
Rahnemoun Mohammad Reza, Sobhanifar Mohammad Javad, Haghshenas Mohammad Reza. "Smallpox and readiness to deal with bioterrorist attacks". Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. 2013; 23(105): 121-134. (In Persian)
Mousavi Seyyed Fazlollah. "International Environmental Law". Tehran: Mizan. 2002. (In Persian)
Hall Matthew. "Victims of environmental harm: rights, recognition and redress under national and international law". London: Routledge; 2013.
Vircavs Magnuss. "Development of environmental management system in Latvia and threats of environmental terrorism". Ecological chemistry and engineering s. 2009; 16 (S1): 51-61.
Gerard, Chaliand, Blin Arnaud. "The history of terrorism: from antiquity to al Qaeda". Trans: Schneider Edward, Pulver Kathryn & Browner Jesse. United States: University of California Press; 2007.
chalecki Elizabeth. "A New Vigilance: Identifying and Reducing the Risks of Environmental Terrorism". Pacific Institute [Internet]. September 26, 2001 [cited 2021 February 6]; -----: 1-19. Available from: www.pacinst.org.
Pourhashemi Seyed Abbas, Namamian Peyman & Taybi Sobhan. "Criminology of Environmental Terrorism; Challenges, norms and strategies". Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 1394; 17 (1): 167-182. (In Persian)
Mirkamali Alireza, Hajivand Amin & Safari Farshid. "Environmental Terrorism in French Criminal Law and Its Compatibility with Similar Criminologies in Iran". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Studies (University of Tehran). 1397; 48(2): 423-445. (In Persian)
Aliapour Hassan. "The Legal Nature of Terrorism; Case Study of the Gaza Event". Quarterly Journal of Strategic Studies. 1389; 13(2): 171-201. (In Prsian)
Ziaee Bigdeli, Mohammad Reza. "Law of War (International Armed Conflict Law)". Tehran: Allameh Tabatabai University Press; 2001. (In Persian)
Kargari Nowruz. "Inside Terrorism". Tehran: Mizan Publications; 2012. (In Persian)
Ellen O'Connell Mary. "The Choice of Law Against Terrorism. Journal of national security law & policy". 2010; 4(343): 343-368.
Najafi Behzad. "Law of International Organizations (WHO) Health law". Tehran: Mizan, 2013. (In Persian)
Mir Abbasi Seyed Baqer, Rezaei Mohammad Reza. "International Responsibility of Governments Due to Environmental Destruction in International Armed Conflicts". Journal of Comparative Law Research. 2019; 23(2): 135-157. (In Persian)
MIRIAM J. AUKERMAN. "War, Crime, or War Crime? Interrogating the Analogy Between War and Terror". Linnan DK. Enemy combatants, terrorism, and armed conflict law: A Guide to the Issues. United States of America: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 2008. 145-164.
seacor Jesica E. "Environmental Terrorism: Lessons from the Oil Fires of Kuwait". American University International Law Review. 1996; 10(1): 481-523.
Roberts Adam. "Laws of War. In Aria MH. International Perspectives on the Persian Gulf War". Tehran: Printing and Publishing Institute of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 1996. 393-444.
Vosoughi Manouchehr, Masahabadi Parivash, Alamzadeh Iran, Borghei Mehdi, Rashtchian Davood, Sanati Ali Mohammad. "Determination and Bioremediation of Petroleum Pollutant in Soil of Persian Gulf Coast". Journal of Water and Wastewater. 2005; 15(1): 2-9. (In Persian)
Akbari Hamid, Naghavi Mohsen, Jafari Nahid, Faghihi Fereshteh, Asgari Majid. "The rate and pattern of mortality due to environmental pollution resulting from the Iraq-Kuwait war in the population of the southern provinces of Zagros and its comparison with the population of the northern provinces of Zagros". Journal of Hakim Health System Research. 2007; 10(3): 54-61. (In Persian)
oryan Shahrbanoo, Tatina Mostafa, Gharibkhani Mahtab. "Study of the effects of oil pollution in the northern part of the Persian Gulf on the accumulation of heavy metals (nickel, lead, cadmium and anadium) in the muscle tissue of white halva". Scientific Journal of Oceanography. 1989; 1(4): 61-68. (In Persian)
Nowruzi Mehrnoosh, Sadeghi Mohammad Mehdi, Bagheri Tavani Mostafa, Zandavar Hedie. "Accumulation of heavy metals in the tissues of three species of fish in the waters of the Persian Gulf and its relationship with some biometric characteristics". Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2020; 21(6): 198-212. (In Persian)
Khorramabadi Alireza, Alizadeh Doghiklayi Ebrahim, Mohammadi Mehdi, AinElahi Fatemeh. "Study of heavy metals (copper, zinc and nickel) muscle tissue of western white shrimp muscle in Bushehr farms". Journal of Marine Science and Technology. 2015; 12(3). 91-100. (In Prsian)
Mashhadi Ali. "Human Rights and the Environment". Tehran: Khorsandi; 2017. (In Persian)
Mohammadi Mehrdad, Hosseini Azad Seyed Ali. "Protection of Environment in Armed Conflict from the Perspective of International Law". Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh; 2015. (In Persian)
Pajuhan, Seyed Hadi. "International law and countering the transmission and export of environmental pollutants". Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh. 2018. (In Persian)
Mottaghi Afshin, Kaviani Rad Morad, Najafi Sajjad. "The Relationship between Environmental Security and National Security (Case Study of Bioterrorism)". Quarterly Journal of Parliament and Strategy. 2016; 22(83): 75-100. (In Persian)
Mehra Nasrin, Gholipour Gholamreza. "Ecoside crime: Past, present and future. Criminal Law Research". 2021; 8(31): 43-81. (In Persian)
Shah Hosseini Atieh. "Environmental International Responsibility for Prohibited Actions". Tehran: Khorsandi; 2018. (In Persian)
Gill Terry. "Chivalry: A Principle of the Law of Armed Conflict?". In Matthee Marielle, Toebes Brigit, brus Marcel. "Armed Conflict and International Law: In Search of the Human Face". Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press; 2013. 33-51.
Zamani Seyed Ghasem, Abdollahi Mohsen, Nouri Waliullah, Rai Massoud. "The principle of proportionality in armed conflict in the light of the documents and procedures of international criminal courts". Journal of Criminal Law Teachings, Razavi University of Islamic Sciences. 2017; 1(12): 91-115. (In Persian)
Momtaz Jamshid. "International Law on Weapons of Collective killing". Translation and research: Ranjbarian Amir Hossein. Tehran: Mizan; 2012.
Moazami Shahla, Namamian Peyman. "Exercising universal competence in the fight against terrorism". In "Ashouri Mohammad, Moazami Shahla, Mehra Nasrin. Understanding terrorism - a collection of articles (legal-philosophical approach)". Tehran: Negah Baeneh, 2015. 196-226. (In Persian)
carrir Robert, Freeman Hakan, Robinson Drill, Wilms Hurst Elizabeth. "An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure". Translation and research by Abiri Armaghan, Ameri Zahra. Tehran: Khorsandi; 2015. (In Persian)
Cassée Antonio. "International Criminal Law". translated and researched by Piran Hossein, Amirarajmand Ardeshir, Mousavi Zahra. Tehran: Jangal; 2009. (In Persian)
Abdollahi Mohsen. "Terrorism, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law". Tehran: Shar-e-danesh; 2009. (In Persian)
Marchuk Iryna. "The Fundamental Concept of Crime in International Criminal Law (A Comparative Law Analysis)". Berlin Heidelberg: Springer; 2014.
Shariat Bagheri Mohammad Javad. "Fundamental Documents of International Criminal Court". Tehran: Jangal; 2015. (In Persian)
Biparva Amir. "Genocide, a crime against human rights". Judgment Quarterly. 2018; 17(91): 121-134. (In Persian)
Jalali Mahmoud. "Terrorism from the Perspective of International Law with Emphasis on the Incident of September 11, 2001". Mofid Journal. 2006; 11(52): 49-80. (In Persian)
Sajadpour Seyyed Mohammad Kazem, Aghamohammadi Zahra. "The Security Council, the Great Powers and the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Conceptual Frameworks and Operational Functions". Afagh-e-Security Quarterly. 2015; 8(28): 161-188. (In Persian)
Saffari Ali, Esmaili Mehdi. "Approach to International Documents to Prevent Terrorism". Journal of Legal Researches. 2013; ---(13): 391-428. (In Persian)
Sharifi Tarazkoohi Hossein, Modarres Sabzevari Sasan. "The Use of Chemical Weapons in the Iran-Iraq War from the Perspective of International Criminal Law". Journal of Public Law Research. 2016; 18(52): 129-152. (In Persian)
_||_
Schofield Timothy. "The Environment as an Ideological Weapon: A Proposal to Criminalize Environmental Terrorism", 26 B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev; 1999.
Mashhadi Ali, Fahimi Azizollah. "Protecting the Environment in Armed Conflict from the Perspective of Islam and International Humanitarian Law". Tehran: Khorsandi Publications; 2016. (In Persian)
Rahnemoun Mohammad Reza, Sobhanifar Mohammad Javad, Haghshenas Mohammad Reza. "Smallpox and readiness to deal with bioterrorist attacks". Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. 2013; 23(105): 121-134. (In Persian)
Mousavi Seyyed Fazlollah. "International Environmental Law". Tehran: Mizan. 2002. (In Persian)
Hall Matthew. "Victims of environmental harm: rights, recognition and redress under national and international law". London: Routledge; 2013.
Vircavs Magnuss. "Development of environmental management system in Latvia and threats of environmental terrorism". Ecological chemistry and engineering s. 2009; 16 (S1): 51-61.
Gerard, Chaliand, Blin Arnaud. "The history of terrorism: from antiquity to al Qaeda". Trans: Schneider Edward, Pulver Kathryn & Browner Jesse. United States: University of California Press; 2007.
chalecki Elizabeth. "A New Vigilance: Identifying and Reducing the Risks of Environmental Terrorism". Pacific Institute [Internet]. September 26, 2001 [cited 2021 February 6]; -----: 1-19. Available from: www.pacinst.org.
Pourhashemi Seyed Abbas, Namamian Peyman & Taybi Sobhan. "Criminology of Environmental Terrorism; Challenges, norms and strategies". Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 1394; 17 (1): 167-182. (In Persian)
Mirkamali Alireza, Hajivand Amin & Safari Farshid. "Environmental Terrorism in French Criminal Law and Its Compatibility with Similar Criminologies in Iran". Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology Studies (University of Tehran). 1397; 48(2): 423-445. (In Persian)
Aliapour Hassan. "The Legal Nature of Terrorism; Case Study of the Gaza Event". Quarterly Journal of Strategic Studies. 1389; 13(2): 171-201. (In Prsian)
Ziaee Bigdeli, Mohammad Reza. "Law of War (International Armed Conflict Law)". Tehran: Allameh Tabatabai University Press; 2001. (In Persian)
Kargari Nowruz. "Inside Terrorism". Tehran: Mizan Publications; 2012. (In Persian)
Ellen O'Connell Mary. "The Choice of Law Against Terrorism. Journal of national security law & policy". 2010; 4(343): 343-368.
Najafi Behzad. "Law of International Organizations (WHO) Health law". Tehran: Mizan, 2013. (In Persian)
Mir Abbasi Seyed Baqer, Rezaei Mohammad Reza. "International Responsibility of Governments Due to Environmental Destruction in International Armed Conflicts". Journal of Comparative Law Research. 2019; 23(2): 135-157. (In Persian)
MIRIAM J. AUKERMAN. "War, Crime, or War Crime? Interrogating the Analogy Between War and Terror". Linnan DK. Enemy combatants, terrorism, and armed conflict law: A Guide to the Issues. United States of America: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. 2008. 145-164.
seacor Jesica E. "Environmental Terrorism: Lessons from the Oil Fires of Kuwait". American University International Law Review. 1996; 10(1): 481-523.
Roberts Adam. "Laws of War. In Aria MH. International Perspectives on the Persian Gulf War". Tehran: Printing and Publishing Institute of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 1996. 393-444.
Vosoughi Manouchehr, Masahabadi Parivash, Alamzadeh Iran, Borghei Mehdi, Rashtchian Davood, Sanati Ali Mohammad. "Determination and Bioremediation of Petroleum Pollutant in Soil of Persian Gulf Coast". Journal of Water and Wastewater. 2005; 15(1): 2-9. (In Persian)
Akbari Hamid, Naghavi Mohsen, Jafari Nahid, Faghihi Fereshteh, Asgari Majid. "The rate and pattern of mortality due to environmental pollution resulting from the Iraq-Kuwait war in the population of the southern provinces of Zagros and its comparison with the population of the northern provinces of Zagros". Journal of Hakim Health System Research. 2007; 10(3): 54-61. (In Persian)
oryan Shahrbanoo, Tatina Mostafa, Gharibkhani Mahtab. "Study of the effects of oil pollution in the northern part of the Persian Gulf on the accumulation of heavy metals (nickel, lead, cadmium and anadium) in the muscle tissue of white halva". Scientific Journal of Oceanography. 1989; 1(4): 61-68. (In Persian)
Nowruzi Mehrnoosh, Sadeghi Mohammad Mehdi, Bagheri Tavani Mostafa, Zandavar Hedie. "Accumulation of heavy metals in the tissues of three species of fish in the waters of the Persian Gulf and its relationship with some biometric characteristics". Journal of Environmental Science and Technology. 2020; 21(6): 198-212. (In Persian)
Khorramabadi Alireza, Alizadeh Doghiklayi Ebrahim, Mohammadi Mehdi, AinElahi Fatemeh. "Study of heavy metals (copper, zinc and nickel) muscle tissue of western white shrimp muscle in Bushehr farms". Journal of Marine Science and Technology. 2015; 12(3). 91-100. (In Prsian)
Mashhadi Ali. "Human Rights and the Environment". Tehran: Khorsandi; 2017. (In Persian)
Mohammadi Mehrdad, Hosseini Azad Seyed Ali. "Protection of Environment in Armed Conflict from the Perspective of International Law". Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh; 2015. (In Persian)
Pajuhan, Seyed Hadi. "International law and countering the transmission and export of environmental pollutants". Tehran: Shahr-e-Danesh. 2018. (In Persian)
Mottaghi Afshin, Kaviani Rad Morad, Najafi Sajjad. "The Relationship between Environmental Security and National Security (Case Study of Bioterrorism)". Quarterly Journal of Parliament and Strategy. 2016; 22(83): 75-100. (In Persian)
Mehra Nasrin, Gholipour Gholamreza. "Ecoside crime: Past, present and future. Criminal Law Research". 2021; 8(31): 43-81. (In Persian)
Shah Hosseini Atieh. "Environmental International Responsibility for Prohibited Actions". Tehran: Khorsandi; 2018. (In Persian)
Gill Terry. "Chivalry: A Principle of the Law of Armed Conflict?". In Matthee Marielle, Toebes Brigit, brus Marcel. "Armed Conflict and International Law: In Search of the Human Face". Netherlands: T.M.C. Asser Press; 2013. 33-51.
Zamani Seyed Ghasem, Abdollahi Mohsen, Nouri Waliullah, Rai Massoud. "The principle of proportionality in armed conflict in the light of the documents and procedures of international criminal courts". Journal of Criminal Law Teachings, Razavi University of Islamic Sciences. 2017; 1(12): 91-115. (In Persian)
Momtaz Jamshid. "International Law on Weapons of Collective killing". Translation and research: Ranjbarian Amir Hossein. Tehran: Mizan; 2012.
Moazami Shahla, Namamian Peyman. "Exercising universal competence in the fight against terrorism". In "Ashouri Mohammad, Moazami Shahla, Mehra Nasrin. Understanding terrorism - a collection of articles (legal-philosophical approach)". Tehran: Negah Baeneh, 2015. 196-226. (In Persian)
carrir Robert, Freeman Hakan, Robinson Drill, Wilms Hurst Elizabeth. "An Introduction to International Criminal Law and Procedure". Translation and research by Abiri Armaghan, Ameri Zahra. Tehran: Khorsandi; 2015. (In Persian)
Cassée Antonio. "International Criminal Law". translated and researched by Piran Hossein, Amirarajmand Ardeshir, Mousavi Zahra. Tehran: Jangal; 2009. (In Persian)
Abdollahi Mohsen. "Terrorism, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law". Tehran: Shar-e-danesh; 2009. (In Persian)
Marchuk Iryna. "The Fundamental Concept of Crime in International Criminal Law (A Comparative Law Analysis)". Berlin Heidelberg: Springer; 2014.
Shariat Bagheri Mohammad Javad. "Fundamental Documents of International Criminal Court". Tehran: Jangal; 2015. (In Persian)
Biparva Amir. "Genocide, a crime against human rights". Judgment Quarterly. 2018; 17(91): 121-134. (In Persian)
Jalali Mahmoud. "Terrorism from the Perspective of International Law with Emphasis on the Incident of September 11, 2001". Mofid Journal. 2006; 11(52): 49-80. (In Persian)
Sajadpour Seyyed Mohammad Kazem, Aghamohammadi Zahra. "The Security Council, the Great Powers and the United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Conceptual Frameworks and Operational Functions". Afagh-e-Security Quarterly. 2015; 8(28): 161-188. (In Persian)
Saffari Ali, Esmaili Mehdi. "Approach to International Documents to Prevent Terrorism". Journal of Legal Researches. 2013; ---(13): 391-428. (In Persian)
Sharifi Tarazkoohi Hossein, Modarres Sabzevari Sasan. "The Use of Chemical Weapons in the Iran-Iraq War from the Perspective of International Criminal Law". Journal of Public Law Research. 2016; 18(52): 129-152. (In Persian)