Non-singular model of universe
الموضوعات : Journal of Theoretical and Applied Physics
Seyed Ali Sebt
1
(Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran)
Mohamad Reza Abolhassani
2
(Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran)
Ana Khajehnezhad
3
(Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran)
الکلمات المفتاحية: Dark energy, Big bang, Dark matter, Scale factor, Horizon problem,
ملخص المقالة :
Einstein equations give minimum and maximum limits of cosmic scale factor by considering pressure. The contraction before expansion is like the birth of a star. As in nuclear fusion stage, the temperature and pressure of the star depends on its mass, in the order of magnitude of universe mass fusion after gravitational contraction brings about explosion. This does not require to accept the big bang singularity. Explosions have thrown external layers and formed parts of the expanding cosmos in several stages. In observable part of the universe high percentage of dark energy and dark matter confirms that these are the remains of other parts of the cosmos. Neutrinos being highly energetic and without any interaction are the most suitable candidates for dark energy and massive black holes being found at the central part of galaxies and in stellar clusters are the most suitable candidates for dark matter. We dealt with the problem of horizon by considering the idea of step- by step explosions.
Non-singular Model of Universe
1 Physics Research Centre, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University of Tehran; Iran.
*Corresponding author. Email: sa.sebt@srbiau.ac.ir
Abstract: Einstein equations give minimum and maximum limits of cosmic scale factor by considering pressure. In our model the contraction before expansion of cosmose is like the birth of a star. As in nuclear fusion stage, the temperature and pressure of the star depends on its mass, in the order of magnitude of universe mass fusion after gravitational contraction brings about explosion. This does not require to accept the big bang singularity. Explosions have thrown external layers and formed parts of the expanding cosmos in several stages. We dealt with the problem of horizon by considering the idea of step- by step explosions. In observable part of the universe high percentage of dark energy and dark matter confirms that these are the remains of other parts of the cosmos. Neutrinos being highly energetic and without any interaction are the most suitable candidates for dark energy and massive black holes being found at the central part of galaxies and in stellar clusters are the most suitable candidates for dark matter.
Keywords: Big bang, Scale factor, Dark energy, Dark matter, Horizon problem.
1. Introduction
In order to avoid singularity, the second group of bouncy models of cosmos has been introduced. These models consist of initial contraction phases and following expansion with one bounce without singularity between them where contraction converts to expansion. In [3] a model has been introduced representing that the universe starts to contraction by overcoming vacuum energy in t=-∞ until it reaches to the stage of bounce without singularity. In [4] it has been shown that considering a term which is dependent on momentum in Hamiltonian, Einstein equation leads to the universe non-singular expansion. Another model of general relativity bouncing cosmology with a parameter of state equation has been suggested so that big bang singularity is replaced by a length scale of the spacetime defect [5]. Other theories also have been introduced more completely such as periodic universe [6,7] and universal string [8].
At a glance, there is an interest in the start of cosmos evolution. The hypothesis about dust (zero pressure) in high density specially in zero scale factor (S→0) is unacceptable and instead, by considering adiabatic changes, nonzero pressure has to be replaced in Einstein equations that leads to ≠0 (section 2). Let us ask: Would it be feasible to get ideas of astrophysics in the stars formation and use them as a mechanism of the universe formation? Could we replace a big bang pattern, by a known effect which leads to an expansive universe? The contraction before expansion is like the birth of a star.
Supernova data confirm that cosmic expansion is accelerating, which is the reason for the constant term Λ in Einstein equation. Cosmological constant does not vary with cosmic expansion [9]. It is a constant energy called dark energy forming %75 of energy-matter of universe which its origin and its nature have not yet been determined. There has been found a difference of the 60 order of magnitude in quantum vacuum zero-point energy, suggested in standard theory as the cosmological constant and that of experimental results [10]. In our suggested model, Einstein equations [8,10] and gravity [11-13] do not require to be modified for explanation of accelerating cosmos expansion, cosmological constant and dark energy
Planck 2018 data challenge the flatness of the universe. In angular power spectra of microwave, the angular scale of distribution is focused on closed model with curvature density corresponding Ωk=-0.04 [14]. Therefore, new evidences show that the flatness problem does not need to be solved by inflationary theories. Moreover in new model the problem of horizon is solved without inflation assumption.
Our suggested model has an idea for the origin of the dark matter. The exploration into finding heavy particles having no interactions as the candidates for dark matter has been inconclusive [15-17], because the ratio of mass to light (M/L) for galaxies is 50 times of that of sun and this ratio for galactic clusters is 300-500 times larger than that of sun. That is, with the increase in scale, there is more increase in the ratio of mass to light. Other candidates are black holes [15] and dense masses [18] that have to form a large percentage of the matter of the universe. This model has an idea to answer to this question: What is the origin of massive black holes which are in the core of galaxies and stellar clusters? [19,20]
2. Adiabatic contraction and expansion
General relativity and Einstein equations in cosmology are the strongest theoretical foundation of a cosmological paradigm. Additionally, phase transitions, pressure components and the probable existence of matter and energy out of observable system also need to be considered. Moreover, there is no reason that cosmos evolutions lack first stage of shrinkage before its expansion and also there is no motive for universe expansion to originate from a singularity of temperature and pressure. However, these two differences do not lead to the difference in the stages of cosmos evolution after nuclear synthesis.
By considering homogeneity and isotropy symmetries, Einstein equations give
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Row | issue |
| Non-singular model of universe |
1 | The nature of dark matter |
| Black holes and dense masses of skies |
2 | The origin of dark matter |
| Previous explosions |
3 | The nature of dark energy |
| Scattered neutrinos in universe
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4 | Cosmological constant |
| The energy out of observable system
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5 | The origin of cosmic microwave |
| Cooled radiation of explosions |
6 | Universe curvature |
| Positive curvature |
7 | Solving of horizon problem |
| The presence of radiation before the last explosion |
8 | The origin of structures formation |
| Gravitational concentration and rotation around previous black holes |
9 | The cause for the abundance of light elements |
| Initial hydrogen |
10 | Evolution in t=0 |
| The explosion resulting from cosmological hydrogen fusion |
11 | The cause for expansion of the observable universe |
| The radiation pressure in cosmic fusion explosion |
12 | The cause for positive acceleration of the expansion |
| The energy of neutrinos resulting from several cosmic explosions |
6. Conclusion
a) The assumption of cosmic singularity in density and temperature can be avoided and it does not need to assume that at the origin of time, the whole material with the mass of larger than 1020 had been centralized in dimensions with the Planck length:
Lp=
b) The nature of the initial explosion is not ambiguous and unknown. The expanding universe is the result of nuclear explosions.
c) Phasic cosmic explosions lead cosmic background microwave not to encounter with horizon problem.
d) The dark matter (lost mass) of the cosmos, which includes %90 of its mass, are the dense masses and remained black holes from different parts of the cosmos that have been formed before its visible part.
e) The best candidates for dark energy are neutrinos.
f) The whole changes of the universe include six periods:
Hydrogen condensation and its cohesion
Gravitational contraction and as a result heating and the formation of plasma
Nuclear fusion of Hydrogen and explosions
Cooling during expansion of the cosmos
The formation of galaxies and stars
The stability and equilibrium of stars and formation of planets
Acknowledgments: The first and second authors have a moral duty to declare that, learned by the God’s book ‘Quran’, they got the basic idea of the present work, particularly with regard to the number of skies. Moreover, they, especially to explain the details in section 4, used the book ‘Nahj al-Balaghe’, including ‘Amir al-Mu'menin’ imam Ali’s speeches of about 1400 years ago.
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