Effect of Processing on Nutritional Characteristics the Agaricus Bisporus Mushroom
الموضوعات : Research On Crop EcophysiologyMehrdad Jafarpour 1 , Mehrnoosh Kahvaei 2 , Davoud Ahmadi 3
1 - 1- Associate Professor, Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University
2 - Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Research Center, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch
3 - MSc., Department of Agriculture and Food Security, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
الکلمات المفتاحية: Keywords: Infrared, Canning, Amino acids,
ملخص المقالة :
ABSTRACT With the advancements in knowledge and development of industry, the processing methods have also evolved and become more complex and efficient. The processing of agricultural products or processing activities is vital in developing the fruit and vegetable industry, increasing the marketability of fresh products, and reducing post-harvest waste. The current research was conducted randomly with four treatments in three repetitions in 2022-2023 at the Edible & Medicinal Mushroom Research Center Islamic Azad University of Isfahan (Khorasgan). This study evaluated the effect of different processing and drying methods (Such as salting, canning, infrared, and hot air) on the quality characteristics of A. bisporus mushroom. The evaluated traits included volatile and nonvolatile compounds, amino acid, Based on the analysis and identification of volatile and nonvolatile compounds in fresh A. bisporus mushroom samples, Heptane, 3-methyl-, Heptane, 2-methyl-, Octane, Cyclopentane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl, Heptane, Heptane, 2 -methyl-, Nonane, Cyclohexane, methyl-, Octane, 4-methyl-, Decane, Octane, 2,6-dimethyl-, Nonane, 2-methyl-, Octane, 3-methyl- with values of 14/74, 13/85, 12/49, 7/36, 6/60, 5/53, 5/38, 3/31, 3/13, 2/89, 2/64, 1/97 and 1/94 percent, respectively, were the highest amount of compounds. According to the results of amino acid analysis, 15 different amino acid compounds were identified in the fruiting organ of A. bisporus mushroom, and the amount of these compounds varied under different drying methods. The research findings showed that serine had the highest concentration of amino acids, with values of 44.4, 37.6, and 8.1 grams per 100 grams of dry weight, respectively, under the infrared, salting, and hot air treatments. In general, the study results revealed that the infrared and hot air treatments significantly impacted the improvement of the increased the amount of amino acids. Also, the canning treatment preserved the fat content and prevented its excessive oxidation in the A. bisporus mushrooms. Keywords: Infrared, Canning, Amino acids
REFERENCES
Bhatta S, Janezic TS, Ratti C. 2020. Freeze-drying of plant-based foods. Foods, 9: 87.
Biernacka B, Dziki D, Rudy S, Krzykowski A, Polak R, Dziki L. 2022. Influence of pretreatments and freeze-drying conditions of strawberries on drying kinetics and physicochemical properties. Processes, 10: 1588.
Cavusoglu S, Uzun Y, Yilmaz N, Ercisli S, Eren E, Ekiert H, Elansary HO, Szopa A. 2021. Maintaining the quality and storage life of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) with gum, agar, sodium alginate, egg white protein, and lecithin coating. Journal of Fungi, 7: 614.
Coşkun S, Doymaz İ, Tunçkal C, Erdoğan S. 2017. Investigation of drying kinetics of tomato slices dried by using a closed loop heat pump dryer. Heat Mass Transfer, 53: 1863-1871.
Feng Y, Tan CP, Zhou C, Yagoub AEA, Xu B, Sun Y. 2020. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles pretreatment on the vacuum freeze-drying process and physicochemical properties of the dried garlic slices. Food Chemistry, 324: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126883
Gao R, Yu Q, Shen Y, Chu Q, Chen G, Fen S, Yang M, Yuan L, McClements DJ. Sun Q. 2021. Production, bioactive properties and potential application of fish protein hydrolysates: Developments and challenges. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 110: 687-699.
Hu L, Bi J, Jin X, Qiu Y, Sman RGM. 2021. Study on the rehydration quality improvement of Shiitake mushroom by combined drying methods. Foods, 10: 769.
Hu S, Feng X, Huang W, Ibrahim SA, Liu Y. 2020. Effects of drying methods on nonvolatile taste components of Stropharia rugoso-annulata mushrooms. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 127: 109428.
Jaworska G, Bernas E, Mickowska B. 2011. Effect of production process on the amino acid content of frozen and canned Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms. Food Chemistry, 125: 936–943.
Kıan-pour N. 2020. Fundamental drying techniques applied in food science and technology. International Journal of Food Engineering Research, 6: 35–63
Krzykowski A, Dziki D, Rudy S, Polak R, Biernacka B, Gawlik-Dziki U, Janiszewska-Turak E. 2023. Effect of air-drying and freeze-drying temperature on the process kinetics and physicochemical characteristics of white mulberry fruits (Morus alba L.). Processes, 11: 750..
Liu C, Sheng J, Chen L, Zheng Y, Lee DYW, Yang Y, Xu M, Shen L. 2015. Biocontrol activity of Bacillus subtilis isolated from Agaricus bisporus mushroom compost against pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63: 6009–6018.
Martin-Belloso O, Lianos-Barriobero E. 2001. Proximate composition, minerals and vitamins in selected canned vegetables. European Food Research and Technology, 212: 182–187.
Martysiak-Zurowska D, Rozek P, Puta M. 2020. The effect of freeze-drying and storage on lysozyme activity, lactoferrin content, superoxide dismutase activity, total antioxidant capacity and fatty acid profile of freeze-dried human milk. Drying Technology, 2020: 1–11
Monirujamman M. 2014. Metabolic and physiological roles of branched chain amino acids. Advances in Molecular Biology, 2014: 364976
Qin L, Gao JX, Xue J, Chen D, Lin SY, Dong XP, Zhu BW. 2020. Changes in aroma profile of shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) during different stages of hot air drying. Foods, 9: 444, doi:10.3390/foods9040444.
Reis FR, Marques C. de Moraes ACS, Masson ML. 2022. Trends in quality assessment and drying methods used for fruits and vegetables. Food Control, 142: 109254
Tetteh ONA, Ulrichs C, Huyskens-Keil S, Mewis I, Amaglo NK, Oduro IN, Adarkwah C, Obeng-Ofori D, Förster N. 2019. Effects of harvest techniques and drying methods on the stability of glucosinolates in Moringa oleifera leaves during post-harvest. Scientia Horticulturae, 246: 998–1004.
Wang H, Zhang M, Adhikari B. 2015. Drying of shiitake mushroom by combining freeze-drying and mid-infrared radiation. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 94: 507-517.
Wang Y, Li T, Pan Z, Ye X, Ma H. 2023. Effectiveness of combined catalytic infrared radiation and holding time for decontamination Aspergillus niger on dried shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) with different moisture contents. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 176: 114503.
Xue Z, Hao J, Yu W, Kou X. 2016. Effects of processing and storage preservation technologies on nutritional quality and biological activities of edible fungi: a review. Journal of Food Process Engineering, pp: 1-13.
Zhang K, Pu YY, Sun DW. 2018. Recent advances in quality preservation of post-harvest mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus): A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 78: 72–82.
Zhang L, Dong X, Feng X, Ibrahim SA, Huang W, Liu Y. 2021. Effects of drying process on the volatile and nonvolatile flavor compounds of Lentinula edodes. Foods, 10: 2836.
Zhao X, Wei Y, Gong X, Xu H, Xin G. 2020. Evaluation of umami taste components of mushroom (Suillus granulatus) of different grades prepared by different drying methods. Food Science and Human Wellness, 9: 192-198.
Effect of Processing on Nutritional Characteristics the Agaricus Bisporus Mushroom
Mehrdad Jafarpour1,2*, Mehrnoosh Kahvaei2, Davoud Ahmadi3
1- Associate Professor, Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University
2- Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Research Center, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University
3-MSc., Department of Agriculture and Food Security, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
* Corresponding author E-mail: Mehrdad.jafarpour@gmail.com
Received: 25 April 2024 Accepted: 20 June 2024
Abstract
With the advancements in knowledge and development of industry, the processing methods have also evolved and become more complex and efficient. The processing of agricultural products or processing activities is vital in developing the fruit and vegetable industry, increasing the marketability of fresh products, and reducing post-harvest waste. The current research was conducted randomly with four treatments in three repetitions in 2022-2023 at the Edible & Medicinal Mushroom Research Center Islamic Azad University of Isfahan (Khorasgan). This study evaluated the effect of different processing and drying methods (Such as salting, canning, infrared, and hot air) on the quality characteristics of A. bisporus mushroom. The evaluated traits included volatile and nonvolatile compounds, amino acid, Based on the analysis and identification of volatile and nonvolatile compounds in fresh A. bisporus mushroom samples, Heptane, 3-methyl-, Heptane, 2-methyl-, Octane, Cyclopentane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl, Heptane, Heptane, 2 -methyl-, Nonane, Cyclohexane, methyl-, Octane, 4-methyl-, Decane, Octane, 2,6-dimethyl-, Nonane, 2-methyl-, Octane, 3-methyl- with values of 14/74, 13/85, 12/49, 7/36, 6/60, 5/53, 5/38, 3/31, 3/13, 2/89, 2/64, 1/97 and 1/94 percent, respectively, were the highest amount of compounds. According to the results of amino acid analysis, 15 different amino acid compounds were identified in the fruiting organ of A. bisporus mushroom, and the amount of these compounds varied under different drying methods. The research findings showed that serine had the highest concentration of amino acids, with values of 44.4, 37.6, and 8.1 grams per 100 grams of dry weight, respectively, under the infrared, salting, and hot air treatments. In general, the study results revealed that the infrared and hot air treatments significantly impacted the improvement of the increased the amount of amino acids. Also, the canning treatment preserved the fat content and prevented its excessive oxidation in the A. bisporus mushrooms.
Keywords: Infrared, Canning, Amino acids
Introduction
Reduced moisture or drying through heat and mass transfer are widely used to enhance storage, facilitate transportation, preserve quality, and reduce the post-harvest loss of agricultural products to produce dried vegetables and fruits (Martysiak-Zurowska et al., 2020). Moreover, due to the reduced moisture content of the food, the possibility of microbial spoilage is eliminated, and the chemical and biochemical reactions are significantly decelerated. Drying food, especially vegetables and fruits, can be done through various methods, such as sun drying, hot air, infrared, microwave, and vacuum drying (Coskun et al., 2017). The quality of dried products depends on structural characteristics (e.g., specific volume, density, and porosity), thermal characteristics (e.g., glass, crystalline, and elastic modes), and properties, such as moisture absorption and capacity. Color and shrinkage values are the most important physical features in the drying process, which are influenced by the drying conditions (Reis et al., 2022). Dried products must maintain their physical features, texture, and functional properties. Factors such as changes in dried products through the drying process and the demand for green energy have revealed the need to use different drying methods (Kianpour, 2020; Feng et al., 2020).
Important Medicinal Compounds
The key compounds in the fruiting body of Agaricus bisporus are (1&3)-Beta-D-Glucan, (1&4) Beta-D-Glucan, (1&6) Beta-D-Glucan (Anti-tumor and Immune System Booster), and Proteoglycan (Anti-tumor). Button mushroom has the highest amount of Beta-glucan and its derivations than other mushrooms (Farias Menezes et al., 2-22). Beta-glucans are the valuable compounds found in the cell wall structure of some higher plants, such as cereals, algae, yeasts, and mushrooms in particular, that have received attention due to various biological activities (Wang et al., 2022).
Importance of drying
The drying advantages are meeting the global moisture standard, achieving cost efficiency in the international trade market, and maintaining the qualitative and quantitative factors. Drying is an essential and influential quality indicator of the final product regarding chemical and active characteristics (Duan et al., 2021). There is a maximum moisture content for various species of plants prescribed in different pharmacopeias globally. The time and temperature required for drying are vital principles determined by the initial moisture of the plant organ and the quality and quantity of the active substances. Drying should lead to the lowest quality reduction in active substances, color, odor, and taste (Hue et al., 2020; Harguindeguy & Fissore, 2019).
Materials and Methods
Research Method
Uniform A. bisporus mushrooms without any stain, disease, etc., were selected and transferred to the Edible and Medicinal Mushroom Research Center, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch. Fresh mushrooms were stored in the fridge at 4 °C with a relative humidity of 95% prior to the test. The samples were washed with cold water to remove the sticky soil particles, dispose of compost residues on mushrooms, and reduce the microbial load. This step was done as fast as possible to prevent the absorption of extra water. Mushrooms were cut into 5±1 mm thick using a sharp steel knife after manually removing the extra water from the surface. Mushroom slices were placed on one layer of special steel trays and then transferred to the drying device.
Treatments/ Hot air
The fruit body of the sliced A. bisporus mushroom (all 5000 grams) was placed on the steel trays. Then, the mushrooms were dried using the electric thermal drier at 55 °C for 4 hours so that the moisture content of the samples reached the moist base of 10 grams per 100 grams (Hu et al., 2020).
Infrared
The sample mushrooms were dried under the infrared rays at 35 °C with a short wavelength (Hu et al., 2021). The infrared lamps were placed in a row on the upper surface of the dryer chamber, emitting infrared radiation in the range of medium to short wavelengths (2.3-3 µm). The maximum power of each lamp was 450 watts, and the radiation efficiency was 70-80%. To ensure the uniform radiant heating, 6 IR lamps were turned on with a maximum power of 1.2 kW. The distance between the infrared lamps and the trays containing the mushroom samples was 14 cm (Wang et al., 2015).
Canning
180 grams of A. bisporus mushroom were placed in 300cm3 glass containers, sealed, and sterilized with 100 cm3 of hot solution containing 2% salt through aerated immersion. The sterilization process was as follows: increasing the temperature up to 100 °C for 5 minutes, increasing the temperature from 100 to 118 °C for 10 minutes, sterilizing at 118 to 121 °C for 12 minutes, and finally, cooling at 30 °C for 10 minutes. Then, the canned mushrooms were stored at 8-10 °C (Jawroska et al., 2011).
Salting
The sliced mushrooms were immersed in a 10% salt solution for 10 minutes (Workneh et al., 2014).
Measuring methods of the studied traits
Evaluating free amino acids
According to Hu et al. (2020), 1 gram of mushroom powder was shaken with 50 milliliters of hydrochloric acid (0.10 mol/L) at 25 °C for 45 minutes and then centrifuged at 12000 rpm for 30 minutes. The supernatant was added to sulfonyl salicylic acid (5 mL) and placed in the dark for 30 min. Subsequently, it was filtered through a 0.22-micrometer hydrophilic membrane. Finally, the extracted solutions were analyzed by an automatic amino acid analyzer (L-8900) at high speed (Zhang et al., 2019).
Analyzing Amino Acids
To determine the liquid phase amino acids (glutamine, tyrosine, cysteine, and alanine), the hydrolysis of powdered samples was carried out in 6 M Hydrochloride containing 0.5% phenol (to protect tyrosine) at 110 °C for 24 hours under an argon atmosphere. The hydrolysates were lyophilized, dissolved in an appropriate volume of dilution buffer (sodium citrate buffer, pH = 2.2), and filtered through a 0.45 mm syringe before amino acid analysis. Sulfur-containing amino acids were decomposed as oxidation products obtained by the oxidation of performic acid and following the standard hydrolysis method with hydrochloride. Amino acids were determined by ion exchange chromatography with post-column derivatization with ninhydrin using an automatic amino acid analyzer according to the standard protocol. The composition of amino acids was expressed in grams per 100 grams of protein (Bernas and Jaworska, 2012).
The value of Volatile and Nonvolatile Compounds Using GS-MS and E-Nose
Volatile compounds were measured using the method offered by Zhang et al. (2021). A manual SPME (Solid-phase Microextraction devise) with 50 μm/30 μm divinylbenzene/carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (DVB/CAR/PDMS) fiber (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA) was utilized to extract the volatile compounds of samples. Homogenized mushroom (1.8 grams of mushroom powder in 20 ml sodium chloride saturated solution) was added to a 40 ml vial containing a magnetic stirrer bar. Then, 25 μL of cyclohexanone (0.95 mg/mL of ethyl alcohol) was added as an internal standard, and the vials were immediately covered with a PTFE septum (Supelco, Bellefonte, PA, USA). After that, the samples were equalized at 50 °C for 15 minutes, and fiber was put inside the vial for one hour to extract the volatile compounds. Finally, fiber was inserted into the GC injection port and was ejected for 5 minutes. Agilent 7890A GC and Agilent 5975 MS were used to analyze the volatile compounds. GC conditions were as follows: Helium carrier gas at a flow rate of 1 mL/min, injector temperature at 250 °C, oven temperature initially at 40 °C for 3 minutes, then 3 °C/min to 150 °C and held for 1 minute, finally 5 °C/min was set to 220 °C for 2 minutes. The temperature of the ion source was adjusted to 230 °C. Kovats retention index (RI) of the unknown compounds was measured by injecting Alkane-n (C70C30) under equal conditions. The value of volatile compounds was calculated using an internal standard (cyclohexanone) (Zhang et al., 2021).
Moreover, the value of volatile and nonvolatile compounds were utilized by an electronic nose consisting of a set of 10 metal-oxide gas sensors (W3S, W2W, W2S, W1W, W1S, W5C, W6S, W3C, W5S, W1C) to estimate the changes in aroma characteristics during drying. To do so, 0.5 grams of dried samples were placed in 40 ml of covered vials at 50 °C for 10 minutes prior to the analysis. Headspace gas, as a carrier gas, was pumped to the sensor container using a Teflon tube connected to a needle with clean air (400 ml/min). The maximum resistance changes of each sensor were employed to analyze the data (Qin et al., 2020).
Results
Identifying the volatile and nonvolatile compounds in fresh A. bisporus mushrooms
The results of analyzing and identifying the volatile and nonvolatile compounds in fresh A. bisporus mushrooms showed that Heptane, 3-methyl-, Heptane, 2-methyl-, Octane, Cyclopentane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl, Heptane, Heptane, 2-methyl-, Nonane, Cyclohexane, methyl-, Octane, 4-methyl-, Decane, Octane, 2,6-dimethyl-, Nonane, 2-methyl-, Octane, 3-methyl- with values of 14.74%, 13.85%, 12.49%, 7.36%, 6.60%,5.53%, 5.38%, 3.31%, 3.13%, 2.89%, 2.64%, 1.97% and 1.94%, respectively, showed the highest amount of compounds (Table 1).
Table 1. Identifying the volatile and nonvolatile compounds in the fresh A. bisporus mushrooms
PK | RT | Library/ID | CAS | Qual | Area | Pct Total |
1 | 3.43 | Heptane | 000142-82-5 | 91 | 23229726 | 6.60 |
2 | 3.8609 | Cyclohexane, methyl- | 000108-87-2 | 96 | 11665828 | 3.31 |
3 | 4.1336 | Heptane, 2-methyl- | 000592-27-8 | 52 | 19455750 | 5.35 |
4 | 4.7421 | Heptane, 2-methyl- | 000592-27-8 | 95 | 48698095 | 13.85 |
5 | 4.9077 | Heptane, 3-methyl- | 000589-81-1 | 91 | 51846451 | 14.74 |
6 | 5.3459 | Cyclopentane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl- | 003726-47-4 | 87 | 3600529 | 1.02 |
7 | 5.4092 | Octane | 000111-65-9 | 94 | 43948698 | 12.49 |
8 | 9.193 | Cyclopentane, 1-ethyl-3-methyl- | 003726-47-4 | 47 | 25903161 | 7.36 |
9 | 6.7529 | Heptane, 2,3-dimethyl- | 003074-71-3 | 53 | 1655532 | 0.47 |
10 | 6.86 | Octane, 4-methyl- | 002216-34-4 | 64 | 11034018 | 3.13 |
11 | 7.0255 | Octane, 3-methyl- | 002216-33-3 | 91 | 6851908 | 1.94 |
12 | 7.3469 | 1-Ethyl-4-methylcyclohexane | 003728-56-1 | 64 | 3296779 | 0.93 |
13 | 7.4734 | Nonane | 000111-84-2 | 95 | 18936537 | 5.38 |
14 | 7.7412 | Cyclohexane, 1-ethyl-4-methyl-, trans- | 006236-88-0 | 72 | 327685 | 0.09 |
15 | 7.9847 | 5,5-Dimethyl-cyclohex-3-en-1-ol | 082299-68-1 | 50 | 1560000 | 0.44 |
16 | 8.1989 | Octane, 2,6-dimethyl- | 002051-30-1 | 53 | 9300696 | 2.64 |
17 | 8.7296 | Nonane, 2-methyl- | 000871-83-0 | 81 | 6935080 | 1.97 |
18 | 8.8805 | Nonane, 3-methyl- (CAS) | 005911-04-6 | 93 | 2825857 | 0.80 |
19 | 9.2164 | Cyclohexane, (2-methylpropyl)- | 001678-98-4 | 43 | 2243522 | 0.63 |
20 | 9.3041 | Decane | 000124-18-5 | 97 | 10168629 | 2.89 |
21 | 9.7909 | Decane, 4-methyl- | 002847-72-5 | 81 | 2897677 | 0.82 |
22 | 9.9905 | 1-Hexacosanol | 000506-52-5 | 58 | 1951098 | 0.55 |
23 | 10.14287 | Decane, 2-methyl- | 006975-98-0 | 91 | 2600634 | 0.74 |
24 | 10.5504 | Decane, 3-methyl- | 013151-34-3 | 93 | 1024710 | 0.29 |
25 | 10.8572 | 1,3-Cyclohexanedione, 5-isopropyl- | 018456-87-6 | 64 | 723038 | 0.20 |
26 | 10.9497 | Undecane | 001120-21-4 | 96 | 5938493 | 1.68 |
27 | 11.3051 | 1-Octanol, 2-butyl- | 003913-02-8 | 52 | 661443 | 0.18 |
28 | 11.4414 | Carbonic acid, decyl nonyl ester | 1000383-15-8 | 53 | 488659 | 0.13 |
29 | 11.641 | Cyclopentane, (2-methylpropyl)- | 003788-32-7 | 60 | 606029 | 0.17 |
30 | 11.8406 | Tetracontane, 3,5,24-trimethyl- | 055162-61-3 | 83 | 765740 | 0.21 |
31 | 11.9575 | Eicosane | 000112-95-8 | 90 | 838309 | 0.23 |
32 | 12.0646 | Nonadecane, 9-methyl- | 013287-24-6 | 80 | 479849 | 0.13 |
33 | 12.196 | Cyclododecene | 001501-82-2 | 55 | 74611 | 0.02 |
34 | 12.3762 | Cyclopentane, 1-methyl-3-(2-methylpropyl)- | 029053-04-1 | 45 | 300779 | 0.08 |
35 | 12.4443 | Dodecane | 000112-40-3 | 96 | 3835587 | 1.09 |
36 | 12.7072 | Undecane, 2,6-dimethyl- | 017301-23-4 | 87 | 989206 | 0.28 |
37 | 13.126 | Cyclohexane, (cyclopentylmethyl)- | 004431-89-4 | 91 | 1229883 | 0.35 |
38 | 13.2331 | Nonyl tetradecyl ether | 1000406-37-6 | 46 | 552323 | 0.15 |
39 | 13.3596 | Carbonic acid, eicosyl vinyl ester | 1000382-54-3 | 62 | 590459 | 0.16 |
40 | 13.4765 | Sulfurous acid, dodecyl 2-propyl ester | 1000309-12-3 | 62 | 1113188 | 0.13 |
41 | 13.827 | Tridecane | 000629-50-5 | 96 | 2709363 | 0.77 |
42 | 14.0266 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 91 | 112884 | 0.03 |
43 | 14.3334 | Hahnfett (stopcock grease) | 000000-00-0 | 93 | 92352 | 0.02 |
44 | 14.5281 | Heptacosyl acetate | 2000839-82-9 | 83 | 586964 | 0.16 |
45 | 14.6693 | Sulfurous acid, 2-propyl undecyl ester | 1000309-12-2 | 64 | 322988 | 0.09 |
46 | 14.7715 | Carbonic acid, eicosyl vinyl ester | 2000720-94-2 | 74 | 161202 | 0.04 |
47 | 14.8835 | Octatetracontane, 1-iodo- | 040710-70-1 | 86 | 520753 | 0.14 |
48 | 15.1075 | Tetradecane | 000629-59-4 | 98 | 2270057 | 0.64 |
49 | 15.5651 | Hahnfett (stopcock grease) | 000000-00-0 | 87 | 21522 | 0.00 |
50 | 15.755 | Carbonic acid, decyl tridecyl ester | 2000754-99-6 | 90 | 266341 | 0.07 |
51 | 15.8962 | Eicosane | 000112-95-8 | 91 | 372420 | 0.10 |
52 | 16.3149 | pentadecane | 000629-62-9 | 98 | 1518780 | 0.43 |
53 | 16.8894 | Carbonic acid, prop-1-en-2-yl tetradecyl ester | 2000526-05-6 | 80 | 218749 | 0.06 |
54 | 16.0403 | Cyclotridecane | 000295-02-3 | 90 | 376025 | 0.10 |
55 | 17.1426 | Dotriacontyl isopropyl ether | 2000989-42-5 | 80 | 197831 | 0.05 |
56 | 17.4396 | Hexadecane | 000544-76-3 | 98 | 1150452 | 0.32 |
57 | 71.5515 | 1-Dodecanol, 2-octyl- | 2000526-48-2 | 83 | 130722 | 0.03 |
58 | 18.0092 | Eicosane | 000112-95-8 | 91 | 450559 | 0.12 |
59 | 18.2185 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 81 | 107516 | 0.03 |
60 | 18.4376 | Hahnfett (stopcock grease) | 000000-00-0 | 74 | 17724 | 0.00 |
61 | 18.5058 | Heptadecane | 000629-78-7 | 98 | 741349 | 0.21 |
62 | 18.608 | Dodecane, 2,6,10-trimethyl- | 003891-98-3 | 86 | 412855 | 0.11 |
63 | 18.9829 | Carbonic acid, eicosyl vinyl ester | 2000720-94-2 | 83 | 182280 | 0.05 |
64 | 19.1533 | Nonahexacontanoic acid | 040710-32-5 | 74 | 115700 | 0.03 |
65 | 19.2507 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 83 | 102412 | 0.02 |
66 | 19.5136 | Octadecane | 000593-45-3 | 95 | 609593 | 0.17 |
67 | 19.6548 | Carbonic acid, eicosyl vinyl ester | 2000720-94-2 | 90 | 294232 | 0.08 |
68 | 19.9566 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 86 | 66338 | 0.01 |
69 | 20.1222 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 91 | 39609 | 0.01 |
70 | 20.2244 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 87 | 53271 | 0.01 |
71 | 20.4678 | Nonadecane | 000629-92-5 | 98 | 415180 | 0.11 |
72 | 20.8719 | Myristic acid, methyl ester | 000124-10-7 | 72 | 169122 | 0.04 |
73 | 21.0423 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 91 | 27753 | 0.008 |
74 | 21.1251 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 91 | 13890 | 0.004 |
75 | 21.2517 | Oxalic acid, allyl hexadecyl ester | 1000309-24-4 | 53 | 12380 | 0.004 |
76 | 21.3734 | Eicosane | 000112-95-8 | 96 | 319215 | 0.091 |
77 | 21.5682 | Dibutyl phthalate | 000084-74-2 | 72 | 140642 | 0.04 |
78 | 21.7434 | Oxalic acid, cyclobutyl pentadecyl ester | 1000309-70-5 | 50 | 29594 | 0.008 |
79 | 21.909 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 83 | 24018 | 0.007 |
80 | 22.0161 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 80 | 16843 | 0.005 |
81 | 22.2352 | Tetracosane | 000646-31-1 | 91 | 196748 | 0.05 |
82 | 22.3374 | Oxalic acid, cyclobutyl heptadecyl ester | 1000309-70-7 | 59 | 10593 | 0.003 |
83 | 22.4835 | Isobutyl tetradecyl carbonate | 959275-58-2 | 38 | 129775 | 0.037 |
84 | 22.6246 | 1-Dodecanol, 2-octyl- | 0053333-42-6 | 43 | 55667 | 0.01 |
85 | 23.0531 | Tritriacontane | 000630-05-7 | 91 | 201539 | 0.05 |
86 | 23.3598 | Carbonic acid, hexadecyl prop-1-en-2-yl ester | 1000382-90-3 | 59 | 59012 | 0.01 |
87 | 23.5351 | 2-Piperidinone, N-[4-bromo-n-butyl]- | 195194-80-0 | 50 | 18569 | 0.005 |
88 | 23.6325 | Oxalic acid, cyclobutyl heptadecyl ester | 1000309-70-7 | 53 | 17463 | 0.005 |
89 | 23.8321 | Tritetracontane | 007098-21-7 | 91 | 150400 | 0.04 |
90 | 24.1193 | Hexatriacontyl pentafluoropropionate | 1000351-89-0 | 49 | 60378 | 0.01 |
91 | 24.3871 | 1-Hentetracontanol | 040710-42-7 | 50 | 19867 | 0.006 |
92 | 24.5818 | Tritetracontane | 007098-21-7 | 91 | 192324 | 0.05 |
93 | 24.8593 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-1 | 83 | 61281 | 0.01 |
94 | 25.0444 | Octacosyl trifluoroacetate | 1000351-74-9 | 52 | 13883 | 0.004 |
95 | 25.1077 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 80 | 18761 | 0.005 |
96 | 25.2975 | Sulfurous acid, 2-propyl tetradecyl ester | 2000594-86-1 | 91 | 196433 | 0.056 |
97 | 25.5361 | 14-.BETA.-H-PREGNA | 2000494-06-0 | 74 | 80891 | 0.023 |
98 | 25.7503 | Tetrapentacontane, 1,54-dibromo- | 1000156-09-4 | 43 | 17454 | 0.005 |
99 | 25.9889 | Sulfurous acid, 2-propyl tetradecyl ester | 2000594-86-1 | 83 | 145685 | 0.04 |
100 | 26.0863 | 1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, bis(2-ethylhexyl) ester | 000117-81-7 | 91 | 2803497 | 0.79 |
101 | 26.6413 | Carbonic acid, octadecyl vinyl ester | 1000382-54-4 | 60 | 112706 | 0.03 |
102 | 26.9042 | Octacosyl trifluoroacetate | 1000351-74-9 | 20 | 68689 | 0.02 |
103 | 27.2839 | Carbonic acid, decyl hexadecyl ester | 1000383-16-5 | 50 | 126323 | 0.03 |
104 | 27.4933 | Cyclopropane carboxamide, 2-cyclopropyl-2-methyl-N-(1-cyclopropylethyl)- | 331416-19-4 | 42 | 26586 | 0.008 |
105 | 27.8049 | Hexahydropyridine, 1-methyl-4-[4,5-dihydroxyphenyl]- | 094427-47-1 | 30 | 47285 | 0.01 |
106 | 27.8925 | 3-Quinolinecarboxylic acid, 6,8-difluoro-4-hydroxy-, ethyl ester | 1000362-34-6 | 14 | 80746 | 0.023 |
107 | 28.4767 | Phenylacetic acid, 2-(1-adamantyl)ethyl ester | 1000282-91-2 | 38 | 99321 | 0.028 |
108 | 29.0318 | N-Methyl-1-adamantaneacetamide | 031897-93-5 | 43 | 68497 | 0.01 |
Amino Acids
According to the analysis of amino acids, 15 different compounds of amino acids in the fruit body of A. bisporus mushrooms were identified. The amount of these compounds was found to be variable under different drying methods. Based on the results, the maximum amount of amino acids was observed in Serine with values of 44.4, 37.6, and 8.1 grams per 100 grams of dry weight in A. bisporus samples dried through infrared, salting, and hot air methods. Compared with other methods, the lowest amount of identified amino acids was found in the canning method (Figure 2).
Table 2. The effect of different drying treatments on the amount of amino acids in the A. bisporus mushrooms
Amino acid (gram/100 grams of dry weight) | Studied treatments | |||
Infrared | Hot air | Canning | Salting | |
Aspartic Acid | 1.3 | 1.1 | 0.1 | 1.1 |
Glutamic Acid | 3.3 | 4 | 0.1 | 2.7 |
Serine | 44.4 | 8.1 | 1.6 | 37.6 |
Histidine | 0.4 | 0.1 | 0.02< | 0.2 |
Glycine | 1.1 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 1.4 |
Threonine | 1.3 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 1.4 |
Arginine | 0.8 | 0.2 | 0.02< | 0.02< |
Alanine | 1.2 | 2.3 | 0.1 | 0.1 |
Tyrosine | 0.5 | 0.7 | 0.1 | 0.7 |
Methionine | 0.1 | 0.02< | 0.02< | 0.02< |
Valine | 0.5 | 0.5 | 0.4*10-1 | 0.3 |
Phenylalanine | 0.7 | 0.8 | 0.4*10-1 | 0.5 |
Isoleucine | 0.7 | 0.9 | 0.1 | 0.4 |
Leucine | 0.9 | 3.5 | 0.2 | 0.3 |
Lysine | 2.4 | 1.9 | 0.2 | 1.9 |
Discussion and Conclusion
The effect of different processing treatments on some of the quality characteristics of A. bisporus mushroom
Amino Acids
According to the research findings, the amount of amino acids was observed based on various drying and processing methods. Serine had the highest concentration of amino acids, with values of 44.4, 37.6, and 8.1 grams per 100 grams of dry weight in the infrared, salting, and hot air treatments, respectively. Compared with other treatment methods, canning showed the lowest amount of amino acids. Amino acids are essential for protein synthesis, and the resulting proteins play vital physiological roles, such as structural proteins, enzymes and oxygen carriers, vitamins, and CO2, affecting the overall health directly or indirectly. Besides the importance of amino acid compounds in the nutritional value of protein sources, they determine the functional characteristics of the protein. In other words, oligopeptides with biological properties, like antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties, were identified and derived from hydrolyzed proteins (Gao et al., 2021). Branched-chain amino acids (Leucine, Isoleucine, and Valine) have unique biological roles in protein synthesis, cell signaling, and glucose metabolism, affecting the immune system and brain function (Li et al., 2015). In other words, Branched-chain amino acids are essential for the growth and proliferation of T lymphocytes, through which they affect the immune system. Also, aromatic amino acids (Tyrosine and Phenylalanine) can impact protein synthesis, neurotransmitters, and energy generation in the brain by entering the brain through protein carriers. (Monirujamman et al., 2014).
Moisture reduction and protein concentration can improve the retention of amino acids. Xue et al. (2016) studied the impact of salting on the nutritional value and active compounds of Agaricus A. bisporus mushrooms. The results showed that the salted mushrooms had different nutritional properties compared to fresh mushrooms. Salting led to the reduction of 90.8% and 90% in various nonvolatile compounds, such as total free amino acids and the content of essential amino acids, respectively, in salted Agaricus A. bisporus mushrooms. Furthermore, the amount of MSG-like amino acids and 5’-nucleotide in salted Agaricus mushrooms was lower compared to the frozen and canned mushrooms.
Jaworska et al. (2011) reported that canning edible mushrooms significantly reduced Arginine, Glycine, Serine, Histidine, Methionine, and Threonine. Additionally, this process led to a mutual reduction of 80.1% of the total free amino acids and 85% of essential amino acids in the canned Agaricus mushrooms (Martin-Belloso and Lianos-Berriobero, 2001).
Conclusion
In general, the research findings revealed that infrared and hot air treatments significantly impacted the improvement of color indices, such as Browning index, color change, and color index of a* and b*. Moreover, canning treatment reduced the color index of L* in A. bisporus mushroom samples. Salting treatment also decreased the shrinkage ratio. Therefore, producers and experts in medicinal-edible mushroom cultivation are recommended to employ these treatments to process and increase the product storage time to maintain the quality characteristics of the mushroom.
References
Bhatta S, Janezic TS, Ratti C. 2020. Freeze-drying of plant-based foods. Foods, 9: 87.
Biernacka B, Dziki D, Rudy S, Krzykowski A, Polak R, Dziki L. 2022. Influence of pretreatments and freeze-drying conditions of strawberries on drying kinetics and physicochemical properties. Processes, 10: 1588.
Cavusoglu S, Uzun Y, Yilmaz N, Ercisli S, Eren E, Ekiert H, Elansary HO, Szopa A. 2021. Maintaining the quality and storage life of button mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus) with gum, agar, sodium alginate, egg white protein, and lecithin coating. Journal of Fungi, 7: 614.
Coşkun S, Doymaz İ, Tunçkal C, Erdoğan S. 2017. Investigation of drying kinetics of tomato slices dried by using a closed loop heat pump dryer. Heat Mass Transfer, 53: 1863-1871.
Feng Y, Tan CP, Zhou C, Yagoub AEA, Xu B, Sun Y. 2020. Effect of freeze-thaw cycles pretreatment on the vacuum freeze-drying process and physicochemical properties of the dried garlic slices. Food Chemistry, 324: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126883
Gao R, Yu Q, Shen Y, Chu Q, Chen G, Fen S, Yang M, Yuan L, McClements DJ. Sun Q. 2021. Production, bioactive properties and potential application of fish protein hydrolysates: Developments and challenges. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 110: 687-699.
Hu L, Bi J, Jin X, Qiu Y, Sman RGM. 2021. Study on the rehydration quality improvement of Shiitake mushroom by combined drying methods. Foods, 10: 769.
Hu S, Feng X, Huang W, Ibrahim SA, Liu Y. 2020. Effects of drying methods on nonvolatile taste components of Stropharia rugoso-annulata mushrooms. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 127: 109428.
Jaworska G, Bernas E, Mickowska B. 2011. Effect of production process on the amino acid content of frozen and canned Pleurotus ostreatus mushrooms. Food Chemistry, 125: 936–943.
Kıan-pour N. 2020. Fundamental drying techniques applied in food science and technology. International Journal of Food Engineering Research, 6: 35–63
Krzykowski A, Dziki D, Rudy S, Polak R, Biernacka B, Gawlik-Dziki U, Janiszewska-Turak E. 2023. Effect of air-drying and freeze-drying temperature on the process kinetics and physicochemical characteristics of white mulberry fruits (Morus alba L.). Processes, 11: 750..
Liu C, Sheng J, Chen L, Zheng Y, Lee DYW, Yang Y, Xu M, Shen L. 2015. Biocontrol activity of Bacillus subtilis isolated from Agaricus bisporus mushroom compost against pathogenic fungi. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 63: 6009–6018.
Martin-Belloso O, Lianos-Barriobero E. 2001. Proximate composition, minerals and vitamins in selected canned vegetables. European Food Research and Technology, 212: 182–187.
Martysiak-Zurowska D, Rozek P, Puta M. 2020. The effect of freeze-drying and storage on lysozyme activity, lactoferrin content, superoxide dismutase activity, total antioxidant capacity and fatty acid profile of freeze-dried human milk. Drying Technology, 2020: 1–11
Monirujamman M. 2014. Metabolic and physiological roles of branched chain amino acids. Advances in Molecular Biology, 2014: 364976
Qin L, Gao JX, Xue J, Chen D, Lin SY, Dong XP, Zhu BW. 2020. Changes in aroma profile of shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) during different stages of hot air drying. Foods, 9: 444, doi:10.3390/foods9040444.
Reis FR, Marques C. de Moraes ACS, Masson ML. 2022. Trends in quality assessment and drying methods used for fruits and vegetables. Food Control, 142: 109254
Tetteh ONA, Ulrichs C, Huyskens-Keil S, Mewis I, Amaglo NK, Oduro IN, Adarkwah C, Obeng-Ofori D, Förster N. 2019. Effects of harvest techniques and drying methods on the stability of glucosinolates in Moringa oleifera leaves during post-harvest. Scientia Horticulturae, 246: 998–1004.
Wang H, Zhang M, Adhikari B. 2015. Drying of shiitake mushroom by combining freeze-drying and mid-infrared radiation. Food and Bioproducts Processing, 94: 507-517.
Wang Y, Li T, Pan Z, Ye X, Ma H. 2023. Effectiveness of combined catalytic infrared radiation and holding time for decontamination Aspergillus niger on dried shiitake mushrooms (Lentinus edodes) with different moisture contents. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 176: 114503.
Xue Z, Hao J, Yu W, Kou X. 2016. Effects of processing and storage preservation technologies on nutritional quality and biological activities of edible fungi: a review. Journal of Food Process Engineering, pp: 1-13.
Zhang K, Pu YY, Sun DW. 2018. Recent advances in quality preservation of post-harvest mushrooms (Agaricus bisporus): A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 78: 72–82.
Zhang L, Dong X, Feng X, Ibrahim SA, Huang W, Liu Y. 2021. Effects of drying process on the volatile and nonvolatile flavor compounds of Lentinula edodes. Foods, 10: 2836.
Zhao X, Wei Y, Gong X, Xu H, Xin G. 2020. Evaluation of umami taste components of mushroom (Suillus granulatus) of different grades prepared by different drying methods. Food Science and Human Wellness, 9: 192-198.
