مروری بر زمینه‌ها، انواع و پیامدهای مهاجرت بین المللی زنان
الموضوعات : فصلنامه زن و جامعه
بیژن خواجه نوری
1
,
علی شریفی
2
1 - عضو هیات علمی دانشگاه شیراز
2 - علوم اجتماعی داشگاه شیراز
الکلمات المفتاحية: جهانی شدن, زنان, جنسیت, مهاجرت بین‌المللی,
ملخص المقالة :
امروزه زنان از نظر جمعیتی تقریبا نیمی از جریان‌های مهاجرتی را در سطح بین‌المللی تشکیل می‌دهند. این هم‌وزنی مهاجرت‌های مردان و زنان، یکی از مهم‌ترین تحولات مهاجرتی اخیر بوده است که از دهه‌ی 1970 میلادی توجه محققان حوزه مهاجرت را به خود جلب کرده است. مطالعه حاضر به بررسی روندها، انواع، و ویژگی‌های مهاجرت‌های بین‌المللی زنان، مطابق با آخرین آمارها و گزارش‌های سازمان‌های جهانی پرداخته است. نتایج مطالعه نشان داد که این روند را می‌توان در بسترهای جهانی شدن و جنسیت مورد مداقه قرارد داد؛ به‌ویژه جهانی‌شدن تقاضا برای نیروی کار زنانه‌ی ارزان و فرمان‌بر را به طور چشمگیری افزایش داده است. زنان ممکن است آزادانه و یا به اجبار دست به مهاجرت بزنند. همچنین برای زنان، مهاجرت می‌تواند به انگیزه‌ی رهایی از تبعیض‌ها و هنجارهای جنسیتی منقاد‌کننده‌ی زنان باشد. امکان ایجاد فرصت‌های برابر برای زنان در جابجایی‌های بین‌المللی و کسب فرصت‌های اقتصادی و اجتماعی مقتضی به دور از کلیشه‌های جنسیتی را می‌توان به عنوان مصداقی از سطوح توسعه در نظر آورد؛ گرچه زنان در این فرایند ممکن است با چالش‌هایی نیز مواجه شوند. از یکسو تقسیم جنسیتی کار در اقتصاد جهانی و از سوی دیگر کلیشه‌های جنسیتی، منافع مهاجرتی زنان را به نسبت مردان بیشتر در معرض خطر قرار می‌دهند. مهاجران زن غیر قانونی و همچنین زنان مهاجر غیر ماهر، بیشتر در معرض چنین مخاطراتی قرار دارند.
المصادر:
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60- V. Bashi, Survival of the knitted: Immigrant social networks in a stratified world. Stanford University Press, 2007.
61- R. P. C. Brown, J. Connell, and E. V Jimenez‐Soto, “Migrants’ remittances, poverty and social protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga,” Popul. Space Place, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 434–454, 2014.
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63- S. Pedraza, “Women and migration: The social consequences of gender,” Annu. Rev. Sociol., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 303–325, 1991.
64- F. A. Vianello, “Ukrainian migrant women’s social remittances: Contents and effects on families left behind,” Migr. Lett., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2013.
65- D. C. Vecchio, Merchants, midwives, and laboring women: Italian migrants in urban America, vol. 43. University of Illinois Press, 2006.
66- T. Jacka, “Approaches to women and development in rural China,” J. Contemp. China, vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 585–602, 2006.
67- A. Andrews and N. Shahrokni, “Patriarchal Accommodations: Women’s Mobility and Policies of Gender Difference from Urban Iran to Migrant Mexico,” J. Contemp. Ethnogr., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–175, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0891241613516628.
68- A. M. Gaetano, Out to work. University of Hawaii Press, 2015.
69- G. Shokouh, Afyoni & Asemeh, “Analysis of women’s life experience of migration (Study of Women Abroad Migration),” Soc. Sci. Q., vol. 26, no. 87, pp. 155–178, 2019.
70- M. Elo, R. Aman, and F. Täube, “Female migrants and brain waste–A conceptual challenge with societal implications,” Int. Migr., 2020.
71- G. Bjerén, Migration and reproduction. 1997.
72- S. Chant, Gender and migration in developing countries. Belhaven Press, 1992.
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1- K. M. Donato and D. Gabaccia, Gender and international migration. Russell Sage Foundation, 2015.
2- R. Sadeghi and L. Valadvand, “Gender and Migration: A Sociological Analysis of Gender Differentials in Internal Migration in Iran,” Two Q. J. Contemp. Sociol. Res., vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 55–78, 2015.
3- E. A. Parrado and C. A. Flippen, “Migration and gender among Mexican women,” Am. Sociol. Rev., vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 606–632, 2005.
4- V. Ortiz, “Migration and marriage among Puerto Rican women,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 460–484, 1996.
5- https://www.oecd.org/dev/development-gender/SIGI%20and%20Female%20Migration_final.pdf
6- L. S. Kunwar, “International Migration Level and Trends,” Patan Pragya, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2020.
7- V. N. Parrillo, Encyclopedia of social problems. Sage Publications, 2008.
8- M. Moshfegh and M. Khazai, “A Study on Characteristics and Determinants of Independent woman migrants in Iran,” Women’s Strateg. Stud., vol. 17, no. 67 (spring 2015), pp. 85–124, 2015.
9- S. F. Martin, “Consultative meeting on migration and mobility and how this movement affects women: report of the consultative meeting, Malmö Sweden, 2 to 4 December 2003 Report of the consultative meeting on migration and mobility and how this movement affects women,” Georgetown University, 2004.
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13- J. Cortina, P. Taran, E. Elie, and L. Raphael, “Migration and Youth: Challenges and Opportunities. Global Migration Group, United Nations Children’s Fund.” 2014.
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15- U. Nations, “World migration report 2020,” 2020.
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17- N. Popova and M. H. Özel, ILO global estimates on international migrant workers: results and methodology. International Labour Office, 2018.
18- L. B. Landau and E. T. Achiume, “International migration report 2015: Highlights,” Dev. Change, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 1182–1195, 2017.
19- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/remittances%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022)
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21- A. Vitorino, Migration Initiatives 2020. 2019.
22- https://www.migrationdataportal.org/ themes/labour-migration%20(accessed%20Feb.%2007,%202022).
23- H. Mahmoudian, H. B. Razeghi-Nasrabad, and M. R. Karegar Shooraki, “Skilled Migrant Women in Tehran,” Women Dev. Polit., vol. 7, no. 4, 2009.
24- J. Treas, J. Scott, and M. Richards, The Wiley Blackwell companion to the sociology of families. John Wiley & Sons, 2017.
25- N. Oishi, Women in motion: Globalization, state policies, and labor migration in Asia. Stanford University Press, 2005.
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30- H. Ward and S. O. Aral, “Globalisation, the sex industry, and health,” Sex. Transm. Infect., vol. 82, no. 5, pp. 345–347, 2006.
31- M. Arabestani, Desire to leave, emigration in the Iranian intersubjectivity. 2018.
32- United Nations University and Institute on Globalization Culture and Mobility, “Practicing Diversity - Second Mayoral Forum on Mobility, Migration and Development,” 2015. [Online]. Available: file:///C:/Users/ali/Downloads/Documents/UNU-GCMPolicyBriefonPracticingDiversity.pdf.
33- F. Farah, “An Expert group meeting on female migrants: What is so special about it?,” Female Migrants Bridg. Gaps Throughout Life Cycle, p. 23, 2006.
34- C. N. Penson, “Feminization of Migration,” 2007.
35- A. Seifi, “The causes and the consequences of the feminizationof international migration in the light of human security with an emphasis on international law: challenges and solutions,” Women Stud., vol. 8, no. 19, pp. 85–120, 2017.
36- L. L. Lim, The sex sector: The economic and social bases of prostitution in Southeast Asia. International Labour Organization, 1998.
37- U. (2016), “Forced Displacement in 2015.–UNHCR The UN Refugee Agency,” 2016.
38- G. Chammartin, “The feminization of international migration,” Int. Migr. Program. Int. Labour Organ., pp. 37–40, 2002.
39- A. De Dios, “Quilted Sightings: A Women and Gender Studies Reader,” Women Gend. Institute, Miriam Coll. Quezon City, Philipp., 2008.
40- C. Lipszyc, “The feminization of migration: Dreams and realities of migrant women in four Latin American countries,” URBAL, Reclaiming the Streets, Montevideo, Uruguay, pp. 13–15, 2004.
41- H. Jayaweera, “Migrant workers in the UK Healthcare Sector,” 2015.
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42- J. Ghosh, “Migration and Gender Empowerment: Recent Trends and Emerging Issues. UNDP Human Development Report Office, New York.” 2009.
43- V. Ryklina, “Marriage on Export,” Newsweek, vol. 19, no. 58, pp. 11–17, 2004.
44- B. L. Lowell and A. Findlay, “Migration of highly skilled persons from developing countries: impact and policy responses,” Int. Migr. Pap., vol. 44, no. 25, pp. 1–45, 2001.
45- S. K. Tayebi, M. Emadzadeh, and H. Rostami, “The effect of brain drain on economic growth of developing countries,” Q. J. Econ. Growth Dev. Res., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 71–94, 2011.
46- C. Internationalis, “The Female Face of Migration. Background paper,” Retrieved May, 2010. .
47- M. Beiser, “The health of immigrants and refugees in Canada,” Can. J. Public Heal., vol. 96, no. 2, pp. S30–S44, 2005.
48- C. Internationalis, “The female face of migration. Advocacy and best practices for women who migrate and the families they leave behind,” Vatican City State Caritas Int., 2012.
49- M. Potocky, “6. Social Work Practice with Victims of Transnational Human Trafficking,” Columbia University Press, 2010.
50- R. Coomaraswamy, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, its Causes and Consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy: Addendum: Report on the Mission of Special Rapporteur to South Africa on the Issue of Rape in the Community,” 1998. [Online]. Available: http://www.awf.or.jp/pdf/h0015.pdf.
51- R. D. Knomad, “Migration and Remittances: Recent Developments and Outlook,” Migr. Dev. Br., vol. 31, 2019.
52- D. Ratha, C. Eigen-Zucchi, and S. Plaza, Migration and remittances Factbook 2016. World Bank Publications, 2016.
53- UNCTAD, “Impact of Access to Financial Services, Including by Highlighting Remittances on Development: Economic Empowerment of Women and Youth.” 2014, [Online]. Available: https://unctad.org/meetings/en/SessionalDocuments/ciem6d2_en.pdf.
54- N. Hildebrandt, D. J. McKenzie, G. Esquivel, and E. Schargrodsky, “The effects of migration on child health in Mexico [with comments],” Economia, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 257–289, 2005.
55- C. Ambrosius and A. Cuecuecha, “Are Remittances a Substitute for Credit? Carrying the Financial Burden of Health Shocks in National and Transnational Households,” World Dev., vol. 46, pp. 143–152, 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.01.032.
56- M. Le Goff, “Feminization of migration and trends in remittances,” 2016.
57- https://www.google.com/search? q=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&sxsrf=APq-WBuDSRkDoSM2-Acsj_YFDj24lR4BQw%3A1647110866817&ei=0uosYoegMaH97_UPjNeAgAs&ved=0ahUKEwiH0fyQnsH2AhWh_rsIHYwrALAQ4dUDCA4&oq=%E2%80%9CRemittances+and+Financial+Inclusion%2C%E2%80%9D+2018.&gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAwyBwgjEK4CECc6BwgjEOoCECdKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQwA9YwA9gxRtoAnABeACAAYUCiAGFApIBAzItMZgBAKABAaABArABCsABAQ&sclient=gws-wiz
58- P. Levitt, “Social remittances: Migration driven local-level forms of cultural diffusion,” Int. Migr. Rev., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 926–948, 1998.
59- S. Jolly, H. Reeves, and N. Piper, “Gender and migration: Overview report,” Institute of Development studies, 2005.
60- V. Bashi, Survival of the knitted: Immigrant social networks in a stratified world. Stanford University Press, 2007.
61- R. P. C. Brown, J. Connell, and E. V Jimenez‐Soto, “Migrants’ remittances, poverty and social protection in the South Pacific: Fiji and Tonga,” Popul. Space Place, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 434–454, 2014.
62- I. O. for Migration, World Migration 2005 Costs and Benefits of International Migration, vol. 3. Academic Foundation, 2006.
63- S. Pedraza, “Women and migration: The social consequences of gender,” Annu. Rev. Sociol., vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 303–325, 1991.
64- F. A. Vianello, “Ukrainian migrant women’s social remittances: Contents and effects on families left behind,” Migr. Lett., vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 91–100, 2013.
65- D. C. Vecchio, Merchants, midwives, and laboring women: Italian migrants in urban America, vol. 43. University of Illinois Press, 2006.
66- T. Jacka, “Approaches to women and development in rural China,” J. Contemp. China, vol. 15, no. 49, pp. 585–602, 2006.
67- A. Andrews and N. Shahrokni, “Patriarchal Accommodations: Women’s Mobility and Policies of Gender Difference from Urban Iran to Migrant Mexico,” J. Contemp. Ethnogr., vol. 43, no. 2, pp. 148–175, 2014, doi: 10.1177/0891241613516628.
68- A. M. Gaetano, Out to work. University of Hawaii Press, 2015.
69- G. Shokouh, Afyoni & Asemeh, “Analysis of women’s life experience of migration (Study of Women Abroad Migration),” Soc. Sci. Q., vol. 26, no. 87, pp. 155–178, 2019.
70- M. Elo, R. Aman, and F. Täube, “Female migrants and brain waste–A conceptual challenge with societal implications,” Int. Migr., 2020.
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